A disproportionate number of Americans drive to work alone – at the individual state level, the figure ranges from a low of 58% in New York to 85% in Alabama. What factors explain this travel behavior and what sort of policy responses are required to effect changes? In responding to this question, we used multiple test beds and made the case for a demand side management approach to remedy parking problems particularly observed in cities central business districts. To this end, we provide an overview of travel behavior and information on policy levers by generating detailed profiles that capture the travel behavior of commuters in the Pacific states of the continental United States. Building off the result that revealed San Francisco as an outlier, we examine the efficacy of modifying parking rates, via elasticity measures, to influence the demand for parking by developing a two-stage panel data regression optimization model for managing parking in the City of San Francisco. A key contribution of the research is deriving these price elasticities of parking demand estimates using panel data methods. Coefficient estimates from the panel data regression are used to fit a linear prediction model that is the primary input to the optimization model. The balance of the thesis focuses on parking information by discussing the design and implementation of ParkPGH, a novel smart parking application that provides real time and predictive information on garage parking availability in downtown Pittsburgh. At its core is a predictive model that uses as input historical parking, weather and event data to provide estimates of available parking spaces. We provide an example of the model implementation using data from the Theater Square garage where we utilize neural network-based predictors and multiple net searches to generate both continuous and binary estimates of parking availability. Provision was made for the binary classifier given the need to reduce the possibility of Type II errors.

The general aim of this thesis was to investigate affective forecasting in the context of public transport. Paper I, Study 1 revealed that non-users of public transport were less satisfied with the services than users. It was hypothesised that non-users were biased in their satisfaction ratings, a claim that was subsequently investigated in Paper I, Study 2, where a field experiment revealed that car users suffer from an impact bias, due to being more satisfied with the services after a trial period than they predicted they would be. To address the question of whether a focusing illusion is the psychological mechanism responsible for this bias, two experiments containing critical incidents were conducted in Paper II. These experiments investigated whether car users exaggerate the impact that specific incidents have on their future satisfaction with public transport. A negative critical incident generated lower predicted satisfaction with public transport, both for car users with a stated intention to change their current travel mode (in Paper II, Study 1) and for car users with no stated intention to change their travel mode (in Paper II, Study 2), which support the hypothesis that the impact bias in car users’ predictions about future satisfaction with public transport is caused by a focusing illusion. Paper III showed that car users misremember their satisfaction with public transport as a result of their recollections of satisfaction with public transport being lower than their on-line experienced satisfaction. Additionally, the desire to repeat the public transport experience is explained only by remembered satisfaction, not by on-line experienced satisfaction. Paper IV investigated whether a defocusing technique would counteract the focusing illusion by introducing a broader context, thereby generating higher predicted satisfaction. A generic defocusing technique, conducted in Paper IV, Study 1, did not generate higher predicted satisfaction, whereas a self-relevant defocusing technique conducted in Paper IV, Study 2 generated higher predicted satisfaction with public transport. Additionally, it was found that car-use habit accounts for the level of predicted satisfaction regardless of defocusing; the stronger the car-use habit, the lower the predicted satisfaction. The conclusions from this thesis are that non-users of public transport rate the services lower than users do, and that car users become more satisfied when using the services than they predicted. These mispredictions are a result of over-focusing on a limited range of aspects in public transport (i.e., a focusing illusion). Car users’ desire to repeat the public transport experience is influenced by their inaccurate memories of the services and not by their actual experiences. However, defocusing techniques may help car users make more accurate predictions about future satisfaction with public transport; this could facilitate a mode switch from using the car to using public transport services more often. Switching to a more sustainable transport mode could be beneficial for the individual and for society.

High levels of personal car use have negative effects on the environment and on human health. This thesis presents four empirical studies that aimed to develop our knowledge of personal travel choices, focussing on the malleability of attitudes and their sensitivity in relation to specific contexts and goals. The first study (Chapter 2) presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of mechanisms of travel mode choice. The study provides a comprehensive overview of antecedents of car use and non-car use, including sub-group analyses of different contextual factors. Results also highlight the need for standardised measures and consideration of implicit thought processes. The second study (Chapter 3) employs a repertory grid technique to elicit perceptions of seven different transport modes from high mileage car users and non-car users. Comparisons between car users and non-car users highlight potentially effective and ineffective intervention targets. Findings show how sustainable transport might be promoted amongst a portfolio of travel choices. The third study (Chapter 4) utilises qualitative methods to explore the extent to which individuals’ attitude expressions are changeable. The study demonstrates that all participants hold ambivalent and conflicting attitudes, highlighting specific situations in which those attitudes are more likely to be unstable. Two related priming experiments are presented in the final empirical chapter (Chapter 5). Both use survey methodology to investigate whether manipulating the salience of car-use-incongruent goals can lead to more positive attitudes towards and increased willingness to use non-car travel modes. The study confirms that people who are motivated to make changes are a potentially optimal target group for interventions based on subliminal messages. Overall, the research presented in this thesis introduces context sensitivity into the transport literature and offers novel insights into perceptions of a range of travel modes. Recommendations include relevant avenues for future research, findings are discussed in light of implications for transport policy and practice.

This dissertation focuses on the relationship between accessibility to job opportunities, travel mode choices and employment outcomes of the disadvantaged. In past research examining the impact of accessibility on employment outcomes of the underprivileged, it has been an implicit assumption that a poor individual's employment status is directly connected to accessibility to transport modes and job opportunities. This dissertation challenges such a fundamental assumption and argues that due to unique travel needs of the poor, a high level of access to transportation means or job accessibility provided by a given travel mode does not automatically determine the choice of that particular travel mode. What is missing in the existing literature is examination of how accessibility affects travel mode choices for low-income individuals, and how travel mode preferences subsequently influence their employment outcomes. The objective of this dissertation is to shed new light on current understanding of the relationship between transportation and employment of the disadvantaged. The study focuses on explaining what factors influence low-income individuals in their choice of a transportation mode, and more importantly, how modal preferences, along with job accessibility, affect employment of the poor. Household travel survey data from the San Francisco Bay Area and the Atlanta Metropolitan Region were used to examine this interrelationship. The research findings show that higher modal and job accessibility do not always determine the choice of a particular travel mode, defying the assumption of the previous studies. What is important for enhancing one's employment is whether or not a low-income person has regular access to cars and an individual circumstance allows the poor to utilize existing automobiles rather than the efficiency of highway network. In terms of public transportation, higher job accessibility by transit network is associated with better employment outcomes for transit users. Nonetheless, when transit riders had to access transit systems by walking, job accessibility did not have meaningful impact on employment. It is important to note that the impact that job accessibility by transit has on employment is found only in a transit-friendly Bay Area. Policy implication from this dissertation is discussed. / text

The increasing number of travelers in urban areas has led to new opportunities for local government and private mobility providers to offer new travel modes besides and in addition to traditional ones. Multimodal travel provides an especially promising opportunity. However, until now the underlying reasons why consumers choose specific alternatives have not been fully understood. Hence, the design of new travel modes is mainly driven by obvious criteria such as environmental friendliness and convenience but might not consider consumers’ real or latent needs. To close this research gap, sixty in-depth interviews with urban travelers were conducted. To identify the perceptual differences of customers among different travel modes, the repertory grid technique as an innovative, structured interview method was applied. Our data show that urban travelers distinguish and select travel alternatives based on 28 perceptual determinants. While some determinants associated with private cars such as privacy, flexibility and autonomy are key indicators of travel mode choice, costs and time efficiency also play a major role. Furthermore, by comparing travel modes to an ideal category, we reveal that some perceptual determinants do not need to be maximized in order to fulfill customer needs optimally. A comparison of consumers’ perceptual assessments of alternative travel modes identifies specific advantages and disadvantages of all alternatives, and provides fruitful implications for government and private mobility providers.

Today’s sparse cities with for example workplaces located outside the city centre has led to increased travel levels for the inhabitants. The long distance between different attribute has resulted in a car dependency. To achieve the climate goals and a sustainable development it’s important to have a transition to more sustainable travel modes. This essay focus on socially and environmentally sustainable travels to workplaces outside the city centre. The aim of the study is the understand how the geographical location of the workplace affects the travel mode choice. The ambition is to examine the possibilities for environmentally sustainable travel at the same time as the travel also must be socially sustainable and feasible in the individual’s everyday life. This study is conducted in Umeå with a workplace located outside the city centre. The empirical material has been collected through interviews with employees in purpose the understand the individual conditions and travel patterns. The results are then discussed and analysed using, theories and previous research, time-geography, aspects of accessibility and travel mode choice to create an understanding of sustainable travel to workplaces with an external localisation. The results identified challenges linked to long distance, lack of accessibility to use other travel modes and individual constraints. The results shows that individuals have different constraints and opportunities to change their travel mode, but that it is also bound to how much an individual is willing, and able, to sacrifice.

Informações desagregadas de demanda por transportes são recursos essenciais ao correto planejamento urbano, especialmente no que se refere ao transporte público. Contudo, o acesso a estes dados é limitado, devido ao alto custo para coleta de pesquisas domiciliares e à confidencialidade de informações individuais. A presente tese de doutorado aborda esta problemática ao propor dois métodos heurísticos de desagregação de dados, através de simulação geoestatística. Propõe-se empregar, como um input aos procedimentos, informações com alta disponibilidade, como, por exemplo, os microdados, coletados pelo censo demográfico. A diferença principal entre os métodos é que o primeiro não necessita de valores de dados provenientes de Pesquisa Origem/Destino do município de São Paulo, área de estudo deste trabalho. Ambas as abordagens, que podem ser aplicadas a outros diferentes estudos de caso, compreendem um procedimento alternativo para deconvolução de semivariogramas, Simulação Sequencial Gaussiana e validação, considerando malhas regulares de diferentes suportes. Os mapas e métricas estatísticas gerados comprovam que é possível desagregar dados, associados a Áreas de Ponderação de Setores Censitários (Método Proposto 1 – MP1) e a Zonas de Tráfego (Método Proposto 2 – MP2), através dos procedimentos aplicados. Além disso, este trabalho apresenta contribuições metodológicas ao viabilizar: a geração de diversos cenários que reproduzam o comportamento espacial da variável; e o estudo da incerteza associada às simulações. / Disaggregated data for travel demand are essential resources towards good urban planning, especially with regard to public transportation. However, the access to such data is limited due to high costs of collecting household data and due to individual information confidentiality. The present PhD dissertation addresses this issue by introducing two heuristic methods to disaggregate data using geostatistical simulation. It is proposed to employ, as input to the procedures, information with high availability, such as census microdata. The main difference between both methods rely on the fact that the first does not require data values of any Origin/Destination Survey of the São Paulo city, study area of this research. Both approaches, which can be applied to other different study cases, comprise an alternative procedure for semivariogram deconvolution, Sequential Gaussian Simulation and validation, using regular grids of various spatial scales. The resulting maps and statistical metrics corroborate that is possible to disaggregate data associated with a set of Census Tracts (Proposed Method 1 – MP1) and Traffic Analysis Zones (Proposed Method 2 – MP2). Besides, this dissertation presents relevant contributions as it enables: creating different scenarios to reproduce the spatial behavior of the study variable; and assessing the associated uncertainty.

The purpose of this thesis is twofold: Firstly, it explores the reasons parents state for choosing the car to take their children to school; Secondly, it investigates how the characteristics of the journey relate to children’s wellbeing, mood, and cognitive performance. This thesis consists of three papers (Papers I, II, and III). Participating in Paper I were 245 parents of schoolchildren aged between 10 and 15 in Värmland County, Sweden. These parents answered a questionnaire wherein they stated to what degree certain statements correlated with their decision to choose the car. In Paper II, 237 children in grade 4 (aged 10-11), in the City of Staffanstorp, Sweden, recorded all their journeys in a diary over one school week, also reporting on their travel mode, current mood while travelling, activities on arrival, and experiences vis-à-vis those activities. Participating in Paper III was a sample of 345 children aged between 10 and 15 attending five public schools in Värmland County, Sweden. These children rated their current mood, filled out the Satisfaction with Travel Scale (capturing the travel experience), reported details about their journeys, and took a word fluency test. Parents’ wish to accompany their children to school, and the convenience of the car, both impact upon the travel mode decision. In addition, parents also seem to choose the car regardless of the distance between home and school. The findings further reveal that the mood children are in varies with how they travel and where they go, and that there is a difference between boys’ and girls’ experiences. Children who travel by car experience the lowest degree of quality and activation, something which is maintained throughout the school day (especially for girls). Social activities during travel bring a higher degree of quality and excitement, while solitary activities bring more stress. The findings further show that using a smartphone, or doing a combination of activities during the journey, results in better cognitive performance. Thus, it is concluded that the mode choice that parents make for their children correlates with those children’s mood and experience. Specifically, where and how children travel, what they do when they travel, and how long they travel for affect their experiences, mood, and/or cognitive performance. / The aim of this thesis is twofold. Firstly, it explores parents’ stated reasons for choosing the car for their children’s school journeys. Secondly, it investigates the relationship between the characteristics of a journey (i.e. travel mode, travel time, and activities conducted while travelling) and children’s wellbeing (through domain-specific satisfaction), current mood, and cognitive performance. The overall findings show that parents value the car both for its convenience and for the possibility of accompanying their children. Parents also use the car regardless of the distance between home and school. Travel affects children in various ways; for instance, doing certain activities while traveling can help boost cognitive performance and make children feel happy and excited. Notably, being passive during the journey makes children feel stressed and those who travel to school by car are the most tired during the school day. This implies that parents’ travel mode choice affects children’s wellbeing and cognitive performance. These insights are important when it comes to addressing current challenges relating to children’s day-to-day travel: How they experience their day-to-day travel may contribute toward how children travel in the future. / Den här avhandlingen har två delsyften. Först undersöks vilka skäl föräldrar anger för varför deväljer att skjutsa sina barn till skolan med bil. Ett andra syfte är att undersöka hur detta val påverkarbarns mentala hälsa via självskattad upplevelse av skolresan och hur de känner sig vid ankomst(humör). Ytterligare ett syfte är att undersöka hur upplevelsen av skolresan påverkar hur barnenpresterar när de kommer till skolan. Avhandlingen innehåller tre artiklar. I Artikel I deltog 245föräldrar till barn i årskurs 4, 6 och 8 i värmländska skolor. Föräldrarna angav i vilken utsträckningolika skäl påverkar deras val att skjutsa barnen till skolan med bil. I artikel II deltog 237 barn (varav101 flickor) från årskurs 4 i Staffanstorp, Skåne. Barnen förde resdagbok över alla resor de gjordeunder en vecka. I dagboken beskrev de vart de reste, vilka färdmedel de använt, deras humör underresan (som skattades som ledsen-glad och trött-pigg), vilka aktiviteter de ägnat sig åt vidslutdestinationen samt deras upplevelser av dessa aktiviteter. I Artikel III deltog 345 barn frånårskurs 4, 6 och 8 i Värmland. Istället för resdagbok skattade barnen sitt humör, hur nöjda de varmed resan genom att fylla i Satisfaction with Travel Scale adapted for Children (STS-C), resedetaljersamt gjorde ett ordflödestest direkt vid ankomst i skolan. Resultaten visar bland annat att föräldrars önskan att spendera tid med sina barn och praktiskaaspekter med bil ligger till grund för valet av bil. Huruvida det är ett långt eller kort avstånd tillskolan påverkar inte valet att använda bil. Barns humör varierar beroende på hur de reser(färdmedel) och vart de reser (destination). En skillnad observerades också mellan flickor ochpojkar och mellan olika årskurser där t.ex. fickor påverkades mer negativt av att resa med bil änpojkar. Barn som reser med bil till skolan är minst nöjda (upplevde en lägre grad av kvalitet) ochpå sämre humör (är känslomässigt mindre aktiva) vilket också håller i sig under skoldagen. Att ägnasig åt sociala aktiviteter (konversera med vänner och familj) under resan bidrar till en högre upplevdkvalitet och mer upprymdhet medan barn som ägnat sig åt aktiviteter utan sällskap upplever enhögre grad av stress. Resultaten visar också att barn som använder sin smartphone eller kombinerarolika aktiviteter under resan presterar bättre på kognitivt test.

Den här uppsatsen diskuterar hållbart resande, ett vanligt förekommande begrepp i och med det högaktuella begreppet hållbar utveckling. Hållbart resande undersöks i två mindre kommuner i Östergötland för att undersöka vilka uppfattningar och förutsättningar som medborgare och tjänstemän har. Uppsatsen studerar även vilka faktorer som påverkar vid val av färdmedel. Uppsatsen inkluderar intervjuer tillsammans med tjänstemän och medborgare i kommunerna Boxholm och Ödeshög. För att analysera det insamlade materialet tillämpas teorin social praktik, där begreppen kompetens, material och mening står i fokus. Resultatet visar på en gemensam syn gällande avsaknaden av tillgänglighet i kommunerna, framför allt till kollektivtrafik.  Det finns även en förändringsvilja i handlingsmönstret hos medborgarna till att resa mer hållbart men då kompetens och material saknas är det inte möjligt idag. Från kommunens sida finns det också en pågående förändringsvilja med visioner och ambitioner för att erbjuda medborgarna hållbara resalternativ. / This essay discusses sustainable travel which is a common concept in connection with sustainable development. Two small municipalities have been studied in Östergötland, Sweden to assess what individuals and planners think about sustainable travel in their communities. The method used in this essay was to interview with citizens and planners in the municipalities Ödeshög and Boxholm. To analyse the data collection, we apply the theory social practice which focuses on the three elements: materials, competences, meanings. The results show a lack of accessibility in the municipalities, especially in public transport. Furthermore, the result shows that the citizens have a will towards changing their behaviour to transport in a more sustainable way. From the citizens perspectives there was a lack of competences and materials which prevented them from traveling in a more sustainable way. We also saw a will from the planners to change behaviour in their ambitions towards more sustainable travel options.

With a foundation in social sustainability, and with the theoretical framework of transport justice and transport poverty, the aim of this thesis is to create a profile picture of the future potential travelers on the North Bothnia Line in Sävar, Robertsfors and Bureå. Both a quantitative and a qualitative analysis are performed. The quantitative analysis describes the population structures concerning age, gender, educational level, employment, household type, income and cars per 1000 inhabitants. The qualitative analysis consists of an interview study, conducted in Robertsfors, with 47 informants. The interview answers are analyzed through content analysis, and presented in personas for each age group. The three areas differ in population structure, which could have different implications on the future travel. In the planning for a socially sustainable travel with the North Bothnia Line, focus needs to be directed to the young travelers, in particular the high school youths. Families with children are facing constraints when trying to manage sustainable travel, therefore, how to create a socially sustainable travel for this group is important to consider in the planning. Young adults, as well as individuals that are unemployed are vulnerable groups, important to consider. The senior travelers have another travel behavior, compared to the population of working age, but still have their needs connected to travel. The informants are positive about the North Bothnia Line, positive about train as travel mode, and intend to use the future train. They expect that the train will lead to easier and faster transportation and work commuting, increased access to schools and jobs, population growth, open up for more opportunities, and that people do not have to own a car. The greatest needs are; a good timetable, with many departures, matching the work schedule. The train has to be on time, and the ticket price not too high. Both the train and the station have to be easily accessible, supplied with good car parking facilities with engine heaters, and the train has to go fast. Both the train and the station have to be clean and controlled, and there has to be clear, and digital information. / Norrbotniabanans noder 2