Os reatores anaeróbios de concepção mais moderna (e.g., UASB e RALEx) possibilitam a remoção de 65 a 75% de matéria orgânica do esgoto sanitário, com custos de implantação e operação relativamente baixos, em comparação com os processos aeróbios convencionais. Entretanto, esses reatores geralmente são pouco eficientes na remoção de nutrientes e seus efluentes podem apresentar concentrações relativamente elevadas de material orgânico e de sólidos suspensos. Para melhorar a qualidade dos efluentes desses reatores, algumas configurações de pós-tratamento têm sido empregadas no Brasil, dentre as quais os sistemas de lodo ativado e a coagulação/precipitação com sais metálicos, geralmente seguida de flotação por ar dissolvido. Nesta pesquisa, foi avaliada a aplicabilidade da coagulação/precipitação com cloreto férrico, a partir de testes em unidades de coagulação em escala de bancada (jar test e flotateste), para três sistemas de pós-tratamento de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios, a saber: coagulação/precipitação do efluente de um reator anaeróbio (RALEx); co-precipitação em um sistema de lodo ativado; e pós-precipitação do efluente do sistema de lodo ativado. Cada um desses sistemas foi testado com separação de sólidos por sedimentação ou por flotação por ar dissolvido, constituindo seis distintas configurações de pós-tratamento. O pós-tratamento do efluente do reator anaeróbio por coagulação/precipitação se mostrou uma alternativa viável técnica e economicamente, tanto para a sedimentação quanto para a flotação por ar dissolvido. Os diagramas de coagulação obtidos tanto nos ensaios de sedimentação quanto nos de flotação demonstraram que a coagulação/precipitação do efluente do RALEx ocorria de modo mais eficiente para valores de pH entre 5 e 7. A coagulação/precipitação do licor misto com cloreto férrico também se mostrou uma opção atrativa, propiciando a obtenção de efluente bastante clarificado, com possibilidades de reúso. Nessa opção, obtiveram-se eficiências adicionais (i.e., em relação ao sobrenadante do licor misto) de remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo de, respectivamente, 80%, 72% e 85%, com dosagem de 80 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L (48 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'/L). Para a coagulação com cloreto férrico, a flotação não apresentou bons resultados na remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo para separação de sólidos do licor misto. O mesmo ocorreu para o efluente final da ETE quando a etapa de separação de sólidos foi a sedimentação. Quando a separação de sólidos foi feita por flotação, obtiveram-se eficiências de remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo de, respectivamente, 68%, 53% e 83%, com dosagem de 80 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L / The anaerobic reactors of modern conception (e.g., UASB and RALEx) remove from 65 to 75% of sanitary wastewater organic matter with relatively low construction, operation, and maintenance costs, in comparison with conventional aerobic processes. Nevertheless, that reactors are usually little efficient in nutrient removal and their effluents may present relatively high organic matter and suspended solid concentrations. In order to improve the quality of effluents from anaerobic reactors, some post-treatment concepts have been employed in Brazil, among which activated sludge systems and coagulation/precipitation with metallic salts, generally followed by dissolved air flotation. In this research, coagulation/precipitation with ferric chloride was assessed using sedimentation and flotation lab-scale test units (jar test and flotateste, respectively) to three post-treatment systems, namely: coagulation/precipitation of effluent from anaerobic reactor; co-precipitation (in the mixed liquor from activated sludge system); and post-precipitation of effluent from activated sludge system. Each system was assessed with solids separation with sedimentation and dissolved air flotation, constituting six different post-treatment scenarios. Coagulation/precipitation of the effluent from the anaerobic reactor showed to be technical and economically attractive, not only for sedimentation but also for dissolved air flotation. Coagulation diagrams obtained in sedimentation and flotation essays showed that coagulation/precipitation of the effluent from RALEX was more efficient when pH values were between 5 and 7. The mixed liquor coagulation/flocculation with ferric chloride were also an attractive option, resulting in a low turbidity effluent suitable for reuse. In this option, additional removals (i.e., in relation to decanted mixed liquor) of turbidity, COD e phosphorus were obtained: 80%, 72% and 85%, respectively, with the dosage of 80 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L (48 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'/L). Flotation did not presented good results in the removal of turbidity, COD and phosphorus in mixed liquor coagulation/precipitation with ferric chloride. The same was to the effluent from the WWTP when sedimentation was employed in the solids separation step. When solids separation was made using flotation, the removal efficiencies of turbidity, COD and phosphorus were, respectively, 68%, 53%, and 83% for the dosage of 80 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L

A escassez das fontes de fósforo e o alto consumo de energia associado à produção de fertilizantes nitrogenados serão problemas que deverão ser enfrentados no futuro. A recuperação de nutrientes das águas residuárias na forma de estruvita tem sido considerada como uma alternativa para atenuar estes problemas. Na América Latina, a produção de estruvita a partir de esgoto ainda não é uma tecnologia bem conhecida e, portanto, a finalidade deste trabalho é contribuir com uma melhor compreensão dos fenômenos envolvidos. Para isso, a pesquisa foi dividida em três etapas: 1) produção de estruvita a partir de efluente de reator anaeróbio de fluxo ascendente com manto de lodo (RAFA); 2) produção de estruvita a partir de sobrenadante de digestor anaeróbio de lodo de um processo com remoção biológica de fósforo (DALRBF) e 3) influência do cálcio na estruvita produzida na etapa 2. Nas três etapas, ajustaram-se as concentrações de magnésio, a fim de obter razões fósforo:magnésio (P:Mg) pré-estabelecidas, e o pH entre 8,00 e 10,50. Os resultados da primeira etapa mostraram que não foi possível produzir estruvita no efluente do RAFA nas condições testadas. No entanto, foram observadas remoções de fósforo e de nitrogênio, devido à formação de fosfatos de cálcio e de magnésio amorfos. Os resultados da segunda etapa comprovaram a viabilidade de produção de estruvita de sobrenadante de DALRBF e mostraram que os consumos molares dos íons fosfato (PO43-), amônio (NH4+) e magnésio (Mg2+) ou as remoções destes (%) não devem ser os únicos parâmetros para avaliar a formação de estruvita, pois outros compostos cristalizam ou precipitam e reduzem a qualidade do mineral. Para um meio com condições semelhantes às testadas nesta etapa, uma razão P:Mg 1:2 e um pH igual a 9,50 asseguram a máxima recuperação de nutrientes como estruvita com concentração mínima de impurezas, facilitando seu posterior uso como fertilizante. Os resultados da terceira etapa mostraram que uma fase amorfa de fosfato de cálcio ou de magnésio se forma na superfície da estruvita. / The shortage of the phosphorus sources and high-energy consumption associated to the nitrogen fertilizers production will be problems in the future. The nutrient recovery from wastewater as struvite has been considered as an alternative to alleviate these problems. In Latin America, production of struvite from wastewater is not yet a wellknown technology and therefore the purpose of this work is to contribute to a better understanding of the phenomena involved. This research work was performed in three phases: 1) production of struvite from upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor effluent; 2) production of struvite from anaerobic digester supernatant of enhanced biological phosphorus removal process (ADS-EBPR) and 3) influence of calcium in the struvite produced in the phase 2. In three phases, the magnesium concentrations were adjusted to obtain the preset phosphorus:magnesium (P:Mg) ratios and the pH was adjusted between 8,00 and 10,50. The results of the first phase showed that it is not possible to produce struvite in the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor effluent in the tested conditions. However, removal of nitrogen and phosphorus was observed because amorphous calcium and magnesium phosphates were produced. The results of the second phase showed that it is possible to produce struvite in the ADS-EBPR and the molar consumptions of phosphate (PO43-), ammonia (NH4+) and magnesium (Mg2+) or removals (%) should not be the only parameters to evaluate the struvite formation, because other compounds crystallize or precipitate and reduce the quality of the mineral. In the similar conditions tested in this phase, a P:Mg ratio 1:2 and pH 9,50 assure maximum nutrients recovery as struvite with minimum impurities concentration, facilitating its subsequent use as fertilizer. The results of the third phase showed that amorphous calcium or magnesium phosphates were produced on the struvite surface.

Este trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar o comportamento de um sistema de dupla filtração, utilizando filtro ascendente de pedregulho seguido de filtro rápido descendente na remoção de substâncias húmicas. A parte experimental foi realizada em uma instalação piloto, que utilizou como afluente a água do Ribeirão Feijão na qual foi adicionado extrato de substâncias húmicas, previamente extraído de solo turfoso por meio de extração alcalina, para que a cor verdadeira da água de estudo resultasse entre 90 e 110 uH. As condições de coagulação, como gradiente de velocidade, dosagem e pH, foram definidos em ensaios com jarteste. As taxas utilizadas no filtro ascendente em pedregulho foram de 80 e 120 m3/m2.dia e no sistema de filtração rápida descendente de 80, 120, 150, 180, 220 e 240 m3/m2.dia. As carreiras tiveram duração máxima de 72 horas. A utilização do critério de realização de Descargas de Fundos Intermediárias (DFIs), quando o efluente do Filtro Ascendente de Pedregulho (FAP) atingisse valor maior ou igual 50 uH, não permitiu aumento da cor no efluente final. O sistema de dupla filtração estudado foi eficiente na remoção de cor, atingindo diversas vezes remoção completa; outros parâmetros relativos à concentração de substâncias húmicas, como absorvância (254 nm) e Carbono Orgânico Dissolvido (COD), foram removidos entre 89,1 a 93,6% e 27,5 a 48,5% respectivamente. / The present work was carried out to evaluate the removal of humic substances in a double filtration system, comprising on upflow gravel prefilter followed by a rapid down flow filter. Raw water was abstracted from the influent took to the municipal water treatment Plant 2. Humic substances were extracted from peat through alkaline process. The concentrated solution was pumped to raw water in order to obtain true colour of 90-110 Hu in the influent to the pilot plant. Filtration rates studied were as follows: 80 and 120 m3/m2.day in the upflow filter 80, 120, 150, 180, 220 e 240 m3/m2.day in the down flow filter. Maximum filter run length was fixed in 72 hours. Intermediate down flushes in the upflow filter were performed during the run when the effluent colour reached 50 Hu. It is concluded that the system performed efficiently to remove colour; in most part of the effluent colour remained bellow 1 Hu. Absorbance (254 nm) removal resulted high (between 89,1% and 93,6%). Dissolved organic carbon resulted satisfactory (27,5% to 48,5%).

Considerando o aumento da ocorrência de florações de cianobactérias e a possibilidade de formação de subprodutos em diversos mananciais destinados ao consumo humano, este trabalho teve como objetivo, avaliar a remoção de células e subprodutos de Microcystis spp. pelos processos de dupla filtração com filtração ascendente em pedregulho e de filtração descendente em areia, oxidação e adsorção com carvões ativados pulverizado e granular. Na fase 1 foram realizados ensaios de bancada para estabelecimento das condições operacionais dos ensaios a serem realizados em instalação piloto, utilizando-se água de estudo preparada com adição de cultura de cepa tóxica de Microcystis spp. e ou extrato de microcistinas. Em seguida, foram realizados ensaios em instalação piloto de escoamento contínuo para águas de estudo preparadas com adição de cultura de cepa tóxica de Microcystis spp. e de extrato de microcistinas – fase 2 e de material coletado no reservatório de Barra Bonita – SP - fase 3. A concepção de dupla filtração utilizada mostrou ser bastante eficiente na remoção de células de Microcystis spp. e, consequentemente, de microcistinas intracelulares, porém, a remoção ou degradação de microcistinas extracelulares só foi significativa com o emprego de processos complementares de oxidação e ou adsorção. Para as águas de estudo empregadas, não houve formação expressiva de subprodutos organohalogenados nos efluentes dos processos de tratamento, após serem submetidas à cloração e tempo de contato de 1 dia. Adicionalmente, foram realizados estudos prospectivos no sentido de avaliar a toxicidade de extrato, águas de estudo e efluentes dos processos de tratamento por meio de bioensaios com cladóceros e camundongos, além de biomonitoramento com a espécie de peixe Danio rerio. / Considering the increase in the frequency of cyanobacterial blooms and the possibility of by-product formation in water supply sources for human consumption, this work was carried out in order to evaluate the removal of cells and by-products of Microcystis spp. using the processes of double filtration (gravel upflow filtration of coagulated water followed by rapid sand downflow filtration), oxidation and adsorption in powdered and granular activated carbons. Bench scale assays were performed in phase 1 to determine the operational conditions of the tests to be performed in a continuous flow pilot plant, using a study water prepared with filtered water in the water treatment plant 2 of Sao Carlos and culture of a toxic strain of Microcystis spp. and/or microcystins extract. Based on the conditions stated in phase 1, phase 2 was carried out by performing tests in the pilot plant for study waters prepared with culture of toxic strain of Microcystis spp. and phase 3 of microcystins extract from material collect in the de Barra Bonita – SP reservoir. The double filtration system used resulted very efficient concerning the removal of cells of Microcystis spp., but, on the other hand, the removal or degradation of extracellular microcystins was significant with the use of complementary processes such as oxidation and or activated carbon adsorption. With regards to the waters studied, there wasn’t significant formation of by-products due to the oxidation of the effluent of each combination of processes, when submitted to chlorination with detention time of 1 day. Additionally, it was observed the toxicity effect by bioassays with crustaceans and mices, besides Danio rerio fish screening.

Os reatores anaeróbios de concepção mais moderna (e.g., UASB e RALEx) possibilitam a remoção de 65 a 75% de matéria orgânica do esgoto sanitário, com custos de implantação e operação relativamente baixos, em comparação com os processos aeróbios convencionais. Entretanto, esses reatores geralmente são pouco eficientes na remoção de nutrientes e seus efluentes podem apresentar concentrações relativamente elevadas de material orgânico e de sólidos suspensos. Para melhorar a qualidade dos efluentes desses reatores, algumas configurações de pós-tratamento têm sido empregadas no Brasil, dentre as quais os sistemas de lodo ativado e a coagulação/precipitação com sais metálicos, geralmente seguida de flotação por ar dissolvido. Nesta pesquisa, foi avaliada a aplicabilidade da coagulação/precipitação com cloreto férrico, a partir de testes em unidades de coagulação em escala de bancada (jar test e flotateste), para três sistemas de pós-tratamento de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios, a saber: coagulação/precipitação do efluente de um reator anaeróbio (RALEx); co-precipitação em um sistema de lodo ativado; e pós-precipitação do efluente do sistema de lodo ativado. Cada um desses sistemas foi testado com separação de sólidos por sedimentação ou por flotação por ar dissolvido, constituindo seis distintas configurações de pós-tratamento. O pós-tratamento do efluente do reator anaeróbio por coagulação/precipitação se mostrou uma alternativa viável técnica e economicamente, tanto para a sedimentação quanto para a flotação por ar dissolvido. Os diagramas de coagulação obtidos tanto nos ensaios de sedimentação quanto nos de flotação demonstraram que a coagulação/precipitação do efluente do RALEx ocorria de modo mais eficiente para valores de pH entre 5 e 7. A coagulação/precipitação do licor misto com cloreto férrico também se mostrou uma opção atrativa, propiciando a obtenção de efluente bastante clarificado, com possibilidades de reúso. Nessa opção, obtiveram-se eficiências adicionais (i.e., em relação ao sobrenadante do licor misto) de remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo de, respectivamente, 80%, 72% e 85%, com dosagem de 80 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L (48 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'/L). Para a coagulação com cloreto férrico, a flotação não apresentou bons resultados na remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo para separação de sólidos do licor misto. O mesmo ocorreu para o efluente final da ETE quando a etapa de separação de sólidos foi a sedimentação. Quando a separação de sólidos foi feita por flotação, obtiveram-se eficiências de remoção de turbidez, DQO e fósforo de, respectivamente, 68%, 53% e 83%, com dosagem de 80 mg de \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L / The anaerobic reactors of modern conception (e.g., UASB and RALEx) remove from 65 to 75% of sanitary wastewater organic matter with relatively low construction, operation, and maintenance costs, in comparison with conventional aerobic processes. Nevertheless, that reactors are usually little efficient in nutrient removal and their effluents may present relatively high organic matter and suspended solid concentrations. In order to improve the quality of effluents from anaerobic reactors, some post-treatment concepts have been employed in Brazil, among which activated sludge systems and coagulation/precipitation with metallic salts, generally followed by dissolved air flotation. In this research, coagulation/precipitation with ferric chloride was assessed using sedimentation and flotation lab-scale test units (jar test and flotateste, respectively) to three post-treatment systems, namely: coagulation/precipitation of effluent from anaerobic reactor; co-precipitation (in the mixed liquor from activated sludge system); and post-precipitation of effluent from activated sludge system. Each system was assessed with solids separation with sedimentation and dissolved air flotation, constituting six different post-treatment scenarios. Coagulation/precipitation of the effluent from the anaerobic reactor showed to be technical and economically attractive, not only for sedimentation but also for dissolved air flotation. Coagulation diagrams obtained in sedimentation and flotation essays showed that coagulation/precipitation of the effluent from RALEX was more efficient when pH values were between 5 and 7. The mixed liquor coagulation/flocculation with ferric chloride were also an attractive option, resulting in a low turbidity effluent suitable for reuse. In this option, additional removals (i.e., in relation to decanted mixed liquor) of turbidity, COD e phosphorus were obtained: 80%, 72% and 85%, respectively, with the dosage of 80 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L (48 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'/L). Flotation did not presented good results in the removal of turbidity, COD and phosphorus in mixed liquor coagulation/precipitation with ferric chloride. The same was to the effluent from the WWTP when sedimentation was employed in the solids separation step. When solids separation was made using flotation, the removal efficiencies of turbidity, COD and phosphorus were, respectively, 68%, 53%, and 83% for the dosage of 80 mg \'FE\'\'CL IND.3\'.6\'H IND.2\'O/L

O presente trabalho propõe uma metodologia científica, com critérios bem definidos, para avaliar e quantificar o desempenho ambiental e a renovabilidade de processos de tratamento de esgoto, numa base única: a exergia. O desempenho ambiental é quantificado através do cálculo da eficiência exergética ambiental, definida como a razão da exergia do efeito útil do processo pela exergia total consumida dos recursos humanos e naturais, incluindo todas as entradas exergéticas. O cálculo da renovabilidade é feito por meio do índice exergético de renovabilidade definido como como a razão entre a exergia dos produtos pela soma das exergias não renováveis, a exergia destruída, a exergia de desativação e a exergia das emissões e residuos. A metodologia foi aplicada a três processos de tratamento de esgoto: dois biológicos (aeróbio e anaeróbio) e um físico-químico (TQA). O cálculo dos indicadores exergéticos foi realizado para cada um destes processos e foi observado que o processo com maiores valores de desempenho ambiental e renovabilidade, considerando o metano e o lodo do processo como efeito útil, foi o processo RAFA Lagoa Facultativa, com valores respectivamente de n<exerg,amb> (0,983) e lâmbda(7,060). A análise dos resultados mostrou que a metodologia proposta é uma ferramenta útil na avaliação e comparação do desempenho ambiental e da renovabilidade de processos de tratamento de esgoto. / This work proposes a scientific methodology, with well defined criteria, to assess and quantify the environmental performance and renewability of wastewater treatment processes on a single base: the exergy. The environmental performance was measured by calculating the environmental exergy efficiency defined as the exergy ratio of the useful effect of the process to the total exergy consumed by human and natural resources, including all the exergy inputs. The renewability calculation was done using the renewability exergy index defined as the exergy ratio of the products to the sum of the non-renewable exergy, destroyed exergy, deactivation exergy and the emissions and waste exergy. The methodology was applied to three wastewater treatment processes: biological (aerobic and anaerobic) and physicochemical (CEPT) processes. The exergy indicators were calculated for each of these processes and it was observed that the process with the higher environmental performance and renewability values, considering the methane and sludge of process as useful effect, was the Facultative Lagoon UASB process, with values, respectively, of n<env,exerg>(0.983) and lambda(7.060). The results analysis showed that the proposed methodology is a useful tool in the evaluation and comparison of environmental performance and renewability of wastewater treatment processes.

Lead is a known toxin, with the ability to accumulate in the human body from as early as fetal development. Lead exposure is known to cause a myriad of health effects which are more prominent among children. Health effects upon exposure can range from renal and heart disease or potentially cancer in adults to neurotoxicity in children. The continued presence of old lead service lines and plumbing in distribution systems as well as lead-containing solders and brass fixtures in homes may contribute lead to drinking water. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of a predictor known as the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR) in controlling lead release. A ratio above 0.5 – 0.6 theoretically increases the aggressiveness of lead leaching in galvanic settings, while a lower ratio controls lead corrosion. A switch in coagulant type could significantly alter the ratio. However, a coagulant switch could also trigger changes in finished water turbidity and organics, including disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors, as well as impact sludge production. Anecdotal evidence from an Ontario water treatment utility suggested the potential applicability of a newly formulated polymer, cationic activated silica (CAS), in improving DBP precursor removal when used in concurrence with a primary coagulant. No previous scientific research had been dedicated to testing of the polymer. The present research had three primary objectives: The first was to investigate the effect of conventional coagulation with six different coagulants on the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio as it pertains to lead corrosion in two Ontario source waters of differing quality. Additionally, the effect of coagulant choice on pH, turbidity, and organics removal was investigated. The second objective was aimed at testing potential reductions in CSMR and organics that could be brought about by the use of two polymers, cationic and anionic activated silica (CAS and AAS, respectively), as flocculant aids. Finally, the performance of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process was simulated at bench-scale to gauge its performance in comparison with conventional coagulation simulation techniques. The first series of jar-tests investigated the effectiveness of CAS as a primary coagulant on Lake Ontario water. In comparison with the conventional coagulants aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride, CAS did not offer any apparent advantage with respect to turbidity and organics removal. Testing of CAS and AAS as flocculant aids was also conducted. Results from a full factorial experiment focused on CAS testing on Lake Ontario water showed that coagulant dose is the most significant contributor to CSMR, turbidity, DOC removal, and THM control. Generally, improvements resulting from CAS addition were of small magnitude (<15%). Reductions in CSMR were attributed to the presence of the sulfate-containing chemicals alum and sulfuric acid in the CAS formulation. Testing of sulfuric acid-activated AAS on Grand River water showed that pairing of AAS with polyaluminum chloride provides better results than with alum with respect to DOC removal (39% and 27% respectively at 60 mg/L coagulant dose). Highest turbidity removals (>90%) with both coagulants were achieved at the tested coagulant and AAS doses of 10 mg/L and 4 mg/L respectively. CSMR reductions in the presence of AAS were also attributable to sulfate contribution from sulfuric acid. Bench-scale simulation of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process on Grand River water showed comparable removal efficiencies for turbidity (80 – 90% at 10 mg/L), and DOC (30 – 40% at 50 mg/L). Finally, six different coagulants were tested on the two source waters for potential applicability in CSMR adjustment in the context of lead corrosion. The two chloride-containing coagulants polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate increased CSMR in proportion to the coagulant dose added, as would be expected. Average chloride contribution per 10 mg/L coagulant dose was 2.7 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L for polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate, respectively. Sulfate-contributing coagulants aluminum sulfate, ferric sulfate, pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate, and polyaluminum silicate sulfate reduced CSMR as coagulant dose increased, also as would be expected. The highest sulfate contributors per 10 mg/L dose were pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate (6.2 mg/L) and ferric sulfate (6.0 mg/L). The lowest CSMR achieved was 0.6 in Lake Ontario water at a 30 mg/L dose and 0.8 in Grand River water at a 60 mg/L dose. Highest DOC removals were achieved with the chloride-containing coagulants in both waters (35 – 50%) with aluminum chlorohydrate showing superiority in that respect. DOC removals with sulfate-containing coagulants were less, generally in the range of 22 – 41%. Specificity of critical CSMR values to source water needs to be investigated. Additionally, long term effects of sustained high or low CSMR values in distribution systems need to be further looked into. Finally, the effect of interventions to alter CSMR on other water quality parameters influencing lead corrosion such as pH and alkalinity still represent a research deficit.

Lead is a known toxin, with the ability to accumulate in the human body from as early as fetal development. Lead exposure is known to cause a myriad of health effects which are more prominent among children. Health effects upon exposure can range from renal and heart disease or potentially cancer in adults to neurotoxicity in children. The continued presence of old lead service lines and plumbing in distribution systems as well as lead-containing solders and brass fixtures in homes may contribute lead to drinking water. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of a predictor known as the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR) in controlling lead release. A ratio above 0.5 – 0.6 theoretically increases the aggressiveness of lead leaching in galvanic settings, while a lower ratio controls lead corrosion. A switch in coagulant type could significantly alter the ratio. However, a coagulant switch could also trigger changes in finished water turbidity and organics, including disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors, as well as impact sludge production. Anecdotal evidence from an Ontario water treatment utility suggested the potential applicability of a newly formulated polymer, cationic activated silica (CAS), in improving DBP precursor removal when used in concurrence with a primary coagulant. No previous scientific research had been dedicated to testing of the polymer. The present research had three primary objectives: The first was to investigate the effect of conventional coagulation with six different coagulants on the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio as it pertains to lead corrosion in two Ontario source waters of differing quality. Additionally, the effect of coagulant choice on pH, turbidity, and organics removal was investigated. The second objective was aimed at testing potential reductions in CSMR and organics that could be brought about by the use of two polymers, cationic and anionic activated silica (CAS and AAS, respectively), as flocculant aids. Finally, the performance of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process was simulated at bench-scale to gauge its performance in comparison with conventional coagulation simulation techniques. The first series of jar-tests investigated the effectiveness of CAS as a primary coagulant on Lake Ontario water. In comparison with the conventional coagulants aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride, CAS did not offer any apparent advantage with respect to turbidity and organics removal. Testing of CAS and AAS as flocculant aids was also conducted. Results from a full factorial experiment focused on CAS testing on Lake Ontario water showed that coagulant dose is the most significant contributor to CSMR, turbidity, DOC removal, and THM control. Generally, improvements resulting from CAS addition were of small magnitude (<15%). Reductions in CSMR were attributed to the presence of the sulfate-containing chemicals alum and sulfuric acid in the CAS formulation. Testing of sulfuric acid-activated AAS on Grand River water showed that pairing of AAS with polyaluminum chloride provides better results than with alum with respect to DOC removal (39% and 27% respectively at 60 mg/L coagulant dose). Highest turbidity removals (>90%) with both coagulants were achieved at the tested coagulant and AAS doses of 10 mg/L and 4 mg/L respectively. CSMR reductions in the presence of AAS were also attributable to sulfate contribution from sulfuric acid. Bench-scale simulation of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process on Grand River water showed comparable removal efficiencies for turbidity (80 – 90% at 10 mg/L), and DOC (30 – 40% at 50 mg/L). Finally, six different coagulants were tested on the two source waters for potential applicability in CSMR adjustment in the context of lead corrosion. The two chloride-containing coagulants polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate increased CSMR in proportion to the coagulant dose added, as would be expected. Average chloride contribution per 10 mg/L coagulant dose was 2.7 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L for polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate, respectively. Sulfate-contributing coagulants aluminum sulfate, ferric sulfate, pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate, and polyaluminum silicate sulfate reduced CSMR as coagulant dose increased, also as would be expected. The highest sulfate contributors per 10 mg/L dose were pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate (6.2 mg/L) and ferric sulfate (6.0 mg/L). The lowest CSMR achieved was 0.6 in Lake Ontario water at a 30 mg/L dose and 0.8 in Grand River water at a 60 mg/L dose. Highest DOC removals were achieved with the chloride-containing coagulants in both waters (35 – 50%) with aluminum chlorohydrate showing superiority in that respect. DOC removals with sulfate-containing coagulants were less, generally in the range of 22 – 41%. Specificity of critical CSMR values to source water needs to be investigated. Additionally, long term effects of sustained high or low CSMR values in distribution systems need to be further looked into. Finally, the effect of interventions to alter CSMR on other water quality parameters influencing lead corrosion such as pH and alkalinity still represent a research deficit.