Avfall och fossila bränslen står för två svåra miljöproblem i världen idag. I takt med att populationen ökar i världen ökar konsumtion och därmed avfallsmängden men också användningen av fossila bränslen. När avfallsmängden ökar växer också behovet för sofistikerade avfallsbehandlingsmetoder och när fossila bränslen fortsätter att dominera energimarknaden så krävs alternativa bränslen. Detta arbete har utförts i syfte att utforska en metod där båda dessa problem hanteras på ett nytänkande sätt. En förgasningsprocess där avfall förgasas och vätgas kan extraheras ur den syntetiska gasen är en ny väg att utforska en avfallshantering där produkten dessutom kan användas som substitut till fossila bränslen. Förgasning är en kemisk återvinningsmetod där ett kolbaserat substrat oxideras i en miljö med begränsad eller ingen tillgång till syre. Den kemiska processen är inte helt olik förbränning och faktum är att även förbränningsreaktioner sker under förgasningsprocessen. Den begränsade syremiljön gör dock att de blir begränsade. Det är istället andra oxideringsreaktioner som oxiderar bränslet. Processen kan vara både endo- och exotermisk beroende på oxideringsmedel. Används ånga som oxideringsmedel måste värme tillföras systemet. Detta arbete har utformats efter en studie utförd av He et al. (2009a) som i laboratorieskala producerat en syntetisk gas med högt vätgasinnehåll och hög kvalitet i form av låg tjärhalt. Förgasningsmetoden har därför efterliknat denna studie. En skillnad är förgasningsreaktorn som i denna studie har anpassats så att värmetransport är möjlig från en värmepanna där förbränning av biobränsle sker. Detta är anledningen till att en förgasningskammare av typen dubbelbäddsförgasare har valts. Värmepannan som används är Hovhults värmepanna i Uddevalla som ägs av Uddevalla Energi och data för 2014 års drift har erhållits. Modellen som har byggts upp med hjälp av Excel har fokuserat på främst energiflöden utav ett system där förgasningsreaktor, värmepanna, ångcykel, vätgasseparation och gasturbin ingår. I systemet har energiflöden integrerats så gott det går för att bevara energi inom systemet men även för att säkerställa att fjärrvärmebehovet möts. Vidare har även en juridisk del ingått med syftet att kunna klassificera anläggningen och avgöra i vilket skede avfallet upphör att vara avfall och när en produkt har skapats i förgasningsprocessen. Resultatet visar att fjärrvärmebehovet blir bemött samtidigt som el- och vätgasproduktion sker med en total verkningsgrad för systemet som beräknats till 82,5 %. Under främst sommarmånaderna produceras också en mängd överskottsvärme för vilken användningsområden måste hittas. Vidare har den juridiska analysen av det tidigare fallet C-317/07 Lahti Energia gett tolkningen att förgasningskammaren klassas som en samförbränningsanläggning som producerar en produkt, vätgas. Produkten antas bildas i ögonblicket då avfallet förgasas och övergår till gasform. / Waste and fossil fuels count as two great threats for the environment in today’s society. As the world population continues to increase so does consumption and levels of waste plus the usage of fossil fuels. When the waste levels keep increasing the demand for waste treatment methods becomes higher than ever. Combine this with the increasing usage of fossil fuel which feeds the demand for alternative fuels. This master thesis has been carried out to evaluate a method in which both of these global issues are addressed. Hydrogen production through gasification of municipal solid waste is a new method of waste treatment where the product has the potential to replace fossil fuels. Gasification is a chemical recycling method in which a carbon-based material gets oxidized in an oxygen free or limited environment. The chemical process is not far from traditional oxidation, combustion. The fact is that also traditional combustion reactions have a certain role within a gasification process although full combustion is avoided due to the lack of oxygen. The gasification of waste is commenced with an oxidant such as pure oxygen or steam. Depending on the oxidant the process can be either endothermic or exothermic. If steam is used as an oxidant the process is endothermic and heat has to be introduced to the system. The gasification study issued by He et al. (2009a) is widely used as a reference in this thesis because of their result producing a syngas with high hydrogen level and low tar content. As far as possible the gasification method of this thesis has been imitative to the one of He et al. (2009a) with the only difference being an adjustment so that heat transfer is possible from Hovhult heat plant. This is the reason why a double fluidized bed has been chosen as gasification reactor. The heat plant is located at Hovhult in Uddevalla and data has been delivered by Uddevalla Energi from their production during 2014. The main focus of the thesis is to calculate the energy flows of the system, which includes the gasification reactor, the heat plant, hydrogen separation, steam and gas turbine. These calculations have been carried out in a model that has been built in Excel. The energy flows and the processes within the system have been integrated in a way so that energy conservation within the system is maximized. In addition, the heat demand from the district heat network has been met in all cases. Furthermore, Swedish and European legislation has been investigated in order to classify the combined gasification and heat plant and determine where in the process the waste is considered to be a product instead of waste. The result shows that enough heat is produced to meet the district heat requirements and also that hydrogen and electricity can be produced during the process. The energy efficiency of the system has been calculated to 82.5 %. A problem that needs to be handled is the amount of excess heat produced during the summer months. The analysis of the legislation regarding waste and especially the Lahti Energia Case C-317/07 shows that the gasification unit should be classified as a co-incineration plant that produces hydrogen. The waste is assumed to transform into a product the instant it is gasified.

Denna rapport består av information och data som har samlats in i syfte att kunna presentera en genomförbar konvertering av linfärjan Toras framdrivningssystem, som idag utgörs av dieselelektrisk drift, till bränslecellsdrift. Den bränslecell som behandlas i rapporten är PEMFC och är en bränslecellstyp som drivs av ren vätgas. Resultaten tjänar som en informationskälla för en potentiell konvertering och presenteras för Trafikverket, som ett alternativ i linje med Sveriges regerings mål att reducera mängden CO2 utsläpp på en nationell nivå. Informationen i rapporten har insamlats via mail- och telefonkontakt samt ett besök på Tora på plats i Stockholm. Ett genomförande av konverteringen är fullt möjligt men mer kostsamt än dieseldrift i dagsläget med avseende på höga bränsle- och inköpskostnader utav bränsleceller. Med framtidens hårdare utsläppskrav och eventuella förbud av fossila bränslen, så kanske vätgasen kan bli aktuell som bränsle, trots de höga kostnader som finns. / This report consists of the information and data collected in the purpose of presenting a viable option for a conversion from diesel-electric energy supply, to fuel cell energy supply for the propulsion of the cable ferry Tora. The fuel cell mentioned in this report is a PEMFC, which is powered by pure hydrogen. The result serves as a platform of information for a potential conversion and is presented to Trafikverket as an option that corresponds with the Swedish government’s goal of CO2 reduction on a national level. The information in this report was collected via email and telephone contact, and a visit to Tora in Stockholm. An implementation of the conversion is entirely possible but comes with a greater cost then diesel operation at the present time with regards to high fuel and purchase costs of fuel cells. With tomorrow's tougher emission requirements and possible ban on fossil fuels, then maybe hydrogen gas can be viable as fuel, despite the high cost.

Energiomställningen är avgörande för att begränsa de globala koldioxidutsläppen. Det blir det allt viktigare att hitta sätt att ta tillvara på elöverskott och kunna lagra energi från förnybara energikällor som vind och sol. Vätgas är en energibärare och har stor potential för att ha en nyckelroll i ett hundraprocentigt förnybart energisystem. Syftet med studien var att undersöka förutsättningarna för ett ekonomiskt och tekniskt håll- bart logistiksystem för vätgastransport. Målet var att beräkna överföringskostnader och jämföra olika tekniker för transport av vätgas. Studien inleddes med en djupgående litte- raturstudie och omvärldsanalys. Därefter valdes två olika fall i norra Sverige och utifrån de förutsättningar som fanns på platserna jämfördes transport via pipeline, vägtransport och järnvägstransport. Resultaten för vägtransport via komprimerad form tyder på att det krävs ett stort antal transporter för att leverera den analyserade mängden i de olika fallen vilket resulterar i höga kostnader. Transport via järnväg tyder på relativt hög investeringskostnad och ingen större skillnad mellan fallen. Resultaten tyder på att transport via pipeline har relativt låga överföringskostnader för båda fallen och man kan se en skillnad i investeringskostnad mellan fallen. Överföringskostnader via pipeline tyder på lägre kostnader än att överföra el. Överföringskostnader kan bero på olika faktorer som förutsättningar på platsen, elkostnader, avstånd och volym. Det finns osäkerheter i resultaten för vägtransport och järnväg vilket gör det svårt att dra slutsaster utifrån den data som presenteras. Jämförelsen mellan vätgas och el ska ses som en grov uppskattning på grund av de osäkerheter som finns kopplat till elöverföringen. / The energy transition is crucial to limit the global carbon dioxide emissions. Renewable energy sources like wind and solar are intermittent and we need to find ways to use the electricity surplus and store energy. Hydrogen is an energy carrier and has the potential to be a key to achieve a renewable energy system. The aim of the study is to investigate the feasibility for an economic and technical sustainable system for hydrogen distribution. The goal was to calculate transmission cost for different types of hydrogen transport. A profound literature study and external analysis was made in the beginning. Then two cases were selected in the northern part of Sweden. Based on the conditions, transport through pipeline, road transport and transport by rail were choosen. The results for transport by road suggests that very frequent transports are required to deliver the quantity in the cases taken up, which results in high costs. Distribution cost by rail implies high investment costs and there are no significant difference between distribution cost for the cases. Furthermore the results implies that pipeline has low operating costs for both cases and it also implies a difference between investments cost for the cases. The result also indicates that transmission cost by pipelines is cheaper than transmission cost for electricity. Which one is the best option depends on many different factors such as conditions at the location, electricity price, distance and the volume. There are uncertainties in the results for transport by road and by rail, which makes it difficult to conclude based on the current findings. The comparision between hydrogen and electricity should be seen as a rough estimate due to the uncertanties.

In Almunge, east of Uppsala, there is a relative new health care center which has solar power installed on the roof. The solar cells annually produce approximately 62 000 kWh of electricity that are beneficial to store. Batteries can be used for short-term storage and to reduce peak power, but hydrogen storage can be used as long-term storage. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate if it is profitable to implement a hybrid energy storage compared to a single battery storage. The hybrid energy storage is a combination of a saltwater battery that reduces the peak power every month, and a hydrogen storage that functions as back-up power and long-term storage. This is compared to a single saltwater battery that is used to increase the self-sufficiency of the health care center. This is evaluated with respect to feasibility, profitability, sustainability and safety. In this study it turns out that it is not reasonable to install a hybrid energy storage using hydrogen both as back-up power and long-term storage, due to the risks. However, it could be feasible to install a hybrid energy storage where the hydrogens storage only act as back-up power. In the economic analysis, the lifecycle cost (LCC) and pay-back time were compared for five different energy storage solutions. The first solution is a hybrid energy storage, where the hydrogen storage act back-up power for three days, combined with a saltwater battery of 25 kWh to reduce peak power. The second solution is a hybrid energy storage, where the hydrogen storage act back-up power for seven days, combined with a saltwater battery of 25 kWh to reduce peak power. The third solution is a saltwater battery with a capacity of 60 kWh. The fourth solution is a saltwater battery with a capacity of 90 kWh. The fifth solution is a saltwater battery with a capacity of 120 kWh. It turns out that a saltwater battery of 60 kWh has the lowest LCC and shortest pay-back time that is shorter than its lifetime. Therefore, it is most profitable to install a saltwater battery of 60 kWh to increase the self-sufficiency of the health care center.

Vätgas har en potential som energibärare som har möjlighet att användas i fastigheter. Genom elektricitet och en elektrolysör kan vätgas utvinnas ur vatten för att sedan lagras i tankar. Vätgasen kan sedan passera genom en bränslecell för att generera elektricitet och värme. Genom att göra vätgas under sommarhalvåret när förnyelsebara energikällor som solkraft producerar som mest effekt kan vätgas produceras och lagras till vinterhalvåret. Under vinterhalvåret kan vätgasen används som ett energilager som förser systemet med el. Att använda ett vätgassystem ger förmågan att självförsörja fastigheter med förnybar energi. Flera projekt som använder tekniken undersöks och riktvärden för att möjliggöra dess användning i fastigheter tas fram. Tekniken bedöms vara potentiellt användbar med dyr och tekniskt utmanande men med en stor utveckling på gång. / Hydrogen can be used as an energy carrier with potential in buildings and households. Hydrogen gas can be extracted from water by an electrolyser and then stored in tanks. When needed, the hydrogen gas can then be converted by a fuel cell to electricity and heat. During the summer, when renewable energy sources such as solar power produce extra power, hydrogen can be produced and stored. During the winter, the hydrogen gas can be an extra energy source that supplies the system. Using a hydrogen system is an important step toward shaving households with self-supply of renewable energy. In this work, several projects that use this technology are investigated and guideline values for presuming its use in real estate are developed. The technology is considered to be potentially useful. However, it is expensive and technically challenging with major developments underway.

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Vätgas tar en allt större plats i den gröna omställningen inom gruv- och stålindustrin vilket initiativtagande projekt såsom Hybrit och H2 Green Steel bevisat. Vätgas framställs ofta från fossila bränslen vilket genererar koldioxidutsläpp men om produktionen istället sker med elektricitet från förnybara energikällor anses tillverkningen förnybar. Exempel på sådana produktionsmetoder är alkalisk elektrolys och Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) vilka är de två metoder som utvärderats i denna rapport. Dock blir en stor del av den konsumerade elektriciteten till spillvärme där 20% anses användbar. Spillvärmen är lågvärdig med temperaturer på 75°C för alkalisk elektrolys och 50°C för PEM vilket medför att det är svårt att hitta användningsområden för den. Därför har syftet med projektet varit att undersöka vilka användningsområden som spillvärmen kan få avsättning för samt bedöma lönsamheten för dessa. De mängder spillvärme som undersöktes var 1, 3, 5, 7 och 9 MW.  Användningsområdena som undersöktes var generering av elektricitet, generering av kyla, gruvventilation, vattenrening, växthus, energilagring samt kombination av användningsområden. För att erhålla information om teknologier på marknaden gällande generering av elektricitet och kyla samt växthus kombinerades litteraturstudier med marknadsundersökningar. För gruvventilationen, vattenreningen och energilagringen konstruerades beräkningsmodeller i Excel för att samla resultat för analys.  Det var möjligt att generera elektricitet och kyla med spillvärmen från alkalisk elektrolys. Det var inte lönsamt att generera elektricitet medan lönsamheten för att generera kyla inte gick att bestämma. Gruvventilationen hade kort återbetalningstid för värmeväxlaren vid små mängder spillvärme och luftflödet 100 m3/s medan högre luftflöden gav en ökad årlig reducerad energikostnad och därmed kortare återbetalningstid. Stora mängder spillvärme kunde värma vattnet för vattenreningen från 4°C till 15°C under hela året men lönsamheten för vattenreningen kunde inte bedömas på grund av brist på information angående kostnader. Rapporter visade att det var möjligt att utnyttja spillvärme från datacenter för att värma växthus vilket innebar att det borde vara möjligt med spillvärme från vätgasproduktion. Energiförlusterna och temperatursänkningarna för energilagren var små vilket visade att det var möjligt att lagra energi från spillvärmen under perioder när den inte användes. Dock var det osäkert ifall det var lönsamt eller inte. Den mest intressanta kombinationen av användningsområden var gruvventilation och vattenrening eftersom deras maximala energibehov inträffade olika tider på året.  Flera områden bedömdes som potentiella användningsområden för spillvärmen. Dock behöver ytterligare studier utföras, speciellt gällande lönsamheten för områdena. / Recently, hydrogen has gotten more attention in the green transition within the mining- and steel industry which projects like Hybrit and H2 Green Steel have proven. Hydrogen is often created from fossil fuels which generate carbon dioxide emissions but if the production of hydrogen is instead powered by renewable energy sources, it can be considered sustainable. Alkali electrolysis and Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) are two examples of such processes and they are the methods that have been investigated in this report. However, a large portion of the consumed electricity is rejected as waste heat where 20% is considered usable. It is low grade waste heat with temperatures of 75°C for alkali electrolysis and 50°C for PEM which makes it difficult to recover and use. Therefore, the aim of this project has been to investigate the potential areas in which waste heat can be utilized as well as the profitability of them. The amounts of waste heat investigated were 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 MW. The investigated areas of utilization were generation of electricity, generation of cold, mining ventilation, water cleaning, greenhouses, energy storage and combination of different areas. A literature study was combined with researching the market to gather information about existing technologies on the market for generation of electricity and cold as well as greenhouses. Calculation models were created in Excel for mining ventilation, water cleaning and energy storage to gather results for analysis. It was possible to generate electricity and cold with waste heat from alkali electrolysis. It was not profitable to generate electricity while the profitability for generating cold could not be determined. The mining ventilation had a short payback time for the heat exchanger at low amounts of waste heat with an air flow of 100 m3/s while higher air flows resulted in an increase of the yearly reduced energy cost and therefore a shorter payback time. Large amounts of waste heat could heat the water to the water cleaning from 4°C to 15°C during the whole year but the profitability remained undetermined due to lack of information regarding costs. Reports showed that it was possible to utilize waste heat from data centers for heating greenhouses which implies that it should be possible to use waste heat from hydrogen production for the same application. The energy losses and temperature reduction for the energy storages were small which showed that it was possible to store energy from the waste heat during periods when it was not used. However, it was unsure if it was profitable or not. The most interesting combination of utilization areas was mining ventilation with water cleaning since their maximal heating demand occurred at different times during the year. Several areas were assessed as potential areas of utilization for the waste heat. However, more studies need to be conducted, especially regarding the profitability for the utilization areas.

The energy carrier hydrogen has a great advantage over other electricity storing techniques on the market: the ability to store electricity long-term without any geographical needs. Though today’s techniques available are of low efficiency, the interests for them are high. Hydrogen gas is versatile, and with future developments it is possibly to make great economical profit from having a hydrogen storage. This master thesis project is evaluating the possible profitability that can be made when connecting a hydrogen system to a wind farm located in Swedish electricity region SE1.  The system contains of production, storage and cold combustion of hydrogen with one main purpose: to produce hydrogen through electrolysis when the electricity prices are low and convert the gas back to electricity to sell when the prices are high. Four different simulations are made with a mixture of incomes: using the variety in the electricity price over a year, selling the by-products from the hydrogen system and selling pure hydrogen gas.  The different simulations are mainly compared through three values: levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH), earnings before interests and tax (EBIT) and return. The results show that the LCOH -cost per produced kilo hydrogen- for all simulations are higher than other compared production methods; even higher than the price per sold kilo hydrogen. EBIT -earnings per year- show that selling pure hydrogen gas makes a major difference on the yearly profit, from (the lowest result) -52217 SEK to (the highest result) 4853306 SEK. Even though EBIT show a positive result for some of the simulations, the return on the investment is negative which makes the investment non-profitable. In a sensitivity analysis with three variables, is the one who makes the biggest difference on the return value the cost of the hydrogen storage. Lowering that cost enough would make the investment profitable.

Carbon dioxide emissions causes catastrophic consequences and is a major cause of global warming. In connection with this, there is an increased demand for energy, which in turn contributes to increased emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. This has contributed to a large-scale discussion of potential solutions, where many researchers agree that hydrogen energy systems are currently the best solution to the problem.  This degree project has been done in collaboration with AirSon Engineering AB with a focus on long-term storage of electricity in the form of hydrogen.  The method of research is of a qualitative and quantitative nature. To obtain the best result, scientific articles have been studied, data analyzed and the simulation programs Matlab & PVGIS has been used. Relevant questions have also been asked to companies and authorities for advice.  In the result, 3 different System solutions have been presented that works as long-term storage of self-produced renewable electricity in the form of hydrogen and battery. All these Systems have their advantages and disadvantages. System 1 is an On-Grid system with a small PV-system compared to System 2 and System 3. System 2 is a pure Off-Grid System with a giant PV-system and hydrogen storage. System 3 is also a possible off-Grid system connected to hydrogen storage for long-term storage and a battery for short-term storage. The advantage of system 1 is that it is an On-Grid system, and the system has a relatively small PV plant compared to System 2 and System 3. This means that the total costs for System 1 is much lower than the other systems. System 2 is an Off-Grid system, to handle the electricity consumption requires System 2 a very large PV plant and a large hydrogen storage, which means high system costs for the installation of the system. System 3 is also a possible off-Grid system where electricity from the grid does not need to be purchased, but to use the entire electricity production, the overflow of electricity needs to be sent to the grid. System 3 is most expensive system compared to system 2 and system 1.

In this report, a hydrogen system was investigated to supply a hospital with reserve power and power compensation. Through modelling, four different configurations of hydrogen systems and five different levels of maximum power intake from the electrical grid was evaluated. The evaluation was based on the economical feasibilty and climate footprint of the four different systems. The optimal hydrogen system that was suggested in this report was consisting of Proton electrolyte membrane(PEM) electrolysers, PEM fuel cells and solar panels that powered the elctrolysers for hydrogenproduction. The optimal power intake level was 2000 kW. The suggested system (hydrogen system 3) was never profitable and was shown using the economical metrics Net presentvalue and Levelised cost analysis. Though the hydrogen system had a positive cash flow, it had a large investment cost making it never profitable during the lifetime of the project, that was set to ten years. The total investment cost for the system amounted to 133 million swedish crowns and the cost of the energy used from the PEM fuel cells amounted to 0,536 thousand swedish crowns per kWh. This was due to the fuel cells since they were dimensioned for the reserve power as well which demanded a high power output, thus increasing the investment cost. Another reason for the high investement cost was the PEM technology that was used for the electrolysers and fuel cells. It is an immature technology but it stands out as leading technology for improvements and being important to reach an energy system that is sustainable. The amount of saved carbondioxide equivalents compared to the normal case when a hydrogen system was not in use, amounted to 74 tons.