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This thesis presents the results from the computational fluid dynamics simulations of surface effect ship model tests. The model tests being simulated are of a generic T-Craft model running in calm seas through a range of Froude numbers and in two head seas cases with regular waves. Simulations were created using CD-adapco's STAR-CCM+ and feature incompressible water, compressible air, pitch and heave degrees of freedom, and the volume of fluid interface-capturing scheme. The seals are represented with rigid approximations and the air cushion fans are modeled using constant momentum sources. Drag data, cushion pressure data, and free surface elevation contours are presented for the calm seas cases while drag, pressure, heave, and roll data are presented for the head seas cases. The calm seas cases are modeled both with no viscosity and with viscosity and turbulence. All simulations returned rather accurate estimations of the free surface response, ship motions, and body forces. The largest source of error is believed to be due to the rigid seal approximations. While the wake's amplitude is smaller when viscosity is neglected, both viscous and inviscid simulations' estimations of the free surface qualitatively match video footage from the model tests. It was found that shear drag accounts for about a quarter of the total drag in the model test simulations with viscosity, which is a large source of error in inviscid simulations. Adding the shear drag calculated using the ITTC-1957 friction coefficient line to the total drag from the inviscid simulation gives the total drag from the viscous simulations within a 6% difference. / Master of Science

This thesis focuses on the direct numerical simulation of the combustion of a single aluminum droplet with phase change. For this purpose, the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method is employed for the direct numerical simulation of two distinct phases. To model the droplet combustion, the phase change (evaporation) and chemical reactions are modeled by setting source terms for each governing equation. This work proposes a new form of species source term by phase change, derived using the local instant formulation of two-phase flow. The Stefan problem is used to verify the modified source term. Evaporation fluxes calculated with both modified and conventional sources are compared, demonstrating that the modified species source term yielded mass flow rates closer to theoretical values, with an error rate of less than 20%. The instabilities of source terms in the droplet case are also analyzed, revealing that surface tension and chemical reactions cause numerical errors arising from the sharp discontinuities at the interfacial cells. The model’s validation includes a comparison with a benchmark case, assessing the temporal evolution of droplet diameter change and temperature fields. While the diameter change aligns reasonably with the benchmark, the temperature fields do not reach the benchmark’s flame temperature due to numerical diffusions. Furthermore, the molar fraction of aluminum gas at the interface closely matches experimental values, although the overall spatial distribution of molar fraction of species does not align with the benchmark.

La distillation est un procédé industriel de séparation de phases qui fait typiquement intervenir un écoulement diphasique caractérisé par un film liquide laminaire ou faiblement turbulent s'écoulant par gravité et cisaillé à contre-courant par un courant gazeux turbulent. Afin de comprendre la dynamique de ce genre d'écoulements, nous avons développé un modèle numérique de simulation d'écoulements diphasiques prenant en compte la présence éventuelle des structures turbulentes. Ce modèle s'appuie sur un couplage entre les méthodologies Volume of Fluid sans étape de reconstruction pour le suivi d'interface et la simulation des grandes échelles pour le traitement de la turbulence. Les contraintes de sous-maille sont évaluées par une approche dynamique mixte, ce qui permet au modèle de s'adapter aux caractéristiques locales de la turbulence et de fonctionner même dans des zones laminaires. Le modèle développé est ensuite testé en simulant différentes configuration d'écoulements de films liquides cisaillés ou non par un courant gazeux. / Distillation is an industrial process of phase separation which involves a two-phase flow characterized by a laminar or weakly turbulent gravity- riven liquid film sheared by a countercurrent turbulent gas stream. To understand the dynamics of such flows, we developed a numerical technique aimed at computing incompressible turbulent two-phase flows. A large eddy simulation (LES) approach based on a dynamic mixed model is used to compute turbulence while the two-phase nature of the flow is described through a Volume of Fluid (VOF) approach with no interface reconstruction step. The use of a dynamic mixed approach for modelling the subgrid stresses allows the developed model to self-adapt to local characteristics of turbulence, so that it also works in laminar flows. The whole methodology is then applied to the computation of different configurations of liquid films sheared or not by a gas stream.

Cette thèse est consacrée au développement et à la comparaison des méthodes de suivi d'interface pour les écoulements diphasiques incompressibles. Elle s'intéresse à la sélection de méthodes robustes de suivi d'interface, puis à leur couplage avec le solveur des équations de Navier-Stokes. La méthode level-set est en premier lieu étudiée, en particulier l'influence du schéma d'advection et de l'étape de réinitialisation sur la qualité des résultats du suivi d'interface. Il a été montré que la méthode de réinitialisation avec contrainte de volume est robuste et précise en combinaison avec des schémas conservatifs WENO d'ordre 5 pour l'advection. Il a été constaté que les erreurs du suivi d'interface augmentent de manière abrupte lorsque la condition CFL est trop petite. Comme remède, la réinitialisation du champ level-set effectuée moins souvent réduit la diffusion numérique et le déplacement non-physique de l'interface. La conservation de la masse n'est pas assurée avec les méthodes level-set. Les méthodes VOF (volume-of-fluid) qui conservent naturellement la masse du fluide de référence sont alors étudiées. Une résolution géométrique avec un schéma consistent et conservatif est alors adoptée, ainsi qu'une autre technique alternative plus aisément extensible en 3D. Il a été trouvé que ces deux dernières méthodes donnent des résultats très proches. La méthode MOF (moment-of-fluid), qui reconstruit l'interface en utilisant le centre de masse du fluide de référence, est plus précise que les méthodes VOF. Différentes méthodes couplées entre level-set et VOF sont alors étudiées, notamment: CLSVOF, MCLS, VOSET et CLSMOF. Il a été observé que la méthode level-set tend à épaissir les filaments minces, tandis que VOF et les méthodes couplées les fragmentent en petites particules. Finalement, on a couplé les méthodes level-set et VOF avec le solveur incompressible des équations de Navier-Stokes. On a comparé différentes manières de prise en compte des conditions de saut à l'interface (lisse et raide). Il a été montré que les méthodes VOF sont plus robustes, et donnent d'excellents résultats pour quasiment toutes les simulations. Deux méthodes level-set donnant de très bons résultats, comparables à ceux de VOF, sont aussi identifiées. / This thesis is devoted to the development and comparison of interface methods for incompressible two-phase flows. It focuses on the selection of robust interface capturing methods, then on the manner of their coupling with the Navier-stokes solver. The level-set method is first investigated, in particular the influence of the advection scheme and the reinitialization step on the accuracy of the interface capturing. It is shown that the volume constraint method for reinitialization is robust and accurate in combination with the conservative fifth-order WENO schemes for the advection. It is found that interface errors increase drastically when the CFL number is very small. As a remedy, reinitializing the level-set field less often reduces the amount of numerical diffusion and non-physical interface displacement. Mass conservation is, however, not guaranteed with the level-set methods. The volume-of-fluid (VOF) method is then investigated, which naturally conserves the mass of the reference fluid. A geometrical consistent and conservative scheme is adopted, then an alternative technique more easily extended to 3D. It is found that both methods give very similar results. The moment-of-fluid (MOF) method, which reconstructs the interface using the reference fluid centroid, is found to be more accurate than the VOF methods. Different coupled level-set and VOF methods are then investigated, namely: CLSVOF, MCLS, VOSET and CLSMOF. It is observed that the level-set method tends to thicken thin filaments, whereas the VOF and coupled methods break up thin structures in small fluid particles. Finally, we coupled the level-set and volume-of-fluid methods with the incompressible Navier-Stokes solver. We compared different manners (sharp and smoothed) of treating the interface jump conditions. It is shown that the VOF methods are more robust, and provide excellent results for almost all the performed simulations. Two level-set methods are also identified that give very good results, comparable to those obtained with the VOF methods.

Cette thèse porte sur l’étude des écoulements de Taylor (ou poche/bouchon) gazliquide en microcanal. Ces écoulements où les effets de tension de surface sont prépondérants ont été étudiées expérimentalement et numériquement pour des géométries rectangulaires avec divers rapports d’aspects. Une première partie expérimentale a consisté à caractériser la formation de bulles (taille, fréquence) en fonction des conditions opératoires, des propriétés des fluides (notamment à travers le nombre capillaire) et du mode de mise en contact des fluides. La dynamique de l’écoulement établi a par la suite été étudiée à l’aide du code JADIM. La simulation de ces écoulements dominés par la tension de surface a nécessité de lever les limitations liées à la prise en compte de la force capillaire. En effet des courants parasites numériques sont créés à proximité de l’interface lors de la simulation d’écoulements capillaires. Une méthode Level Set a été implémentée et comparée à la méthode Volume of Fluid d’origine en termes de courants parasites. Des simulations numériques 3D ont permis l’étude des effets du nombre capillaire et de la géométrie sur la dynamique des bulles de Taylor (vitesse, pression et formes de bulles). Les effets inertiels souvent négligés ont été considérés et leur influence, notamment sur les sauts de pression à l’interface, a été mise en évidence. Le mélange dans le bouchon liquide a également été étudié. / This thesis focuses on the hydrodynamics of gas-liquid Taylor flow (or slug flow) in microchannels. These flows, which are generally dominated by surface tension forces, have been investigated in rectangular channels of various cross-sectional aspect ratios by means of both experimental visualizations and numerical simulations. The first experimental part aims at characterizing the bubble generation process (bubble length and frequency of break-up) depending on the operating conditions, the fluid properties, as well as the junction where both fluids merge. Numerical simulations of fully developed Taylor flow have been carried out with the JADIM code. The computation of such surface tension dominated flows requires an accurate calculation of the surface tension force. Some limitations of the Volume of Fluid method have been highlighted and a Level Set method has been developed in order to improve the calculation of capillary effects. Both methods have been compared in detail in terms of spurious currents. 3D numerical simulations have been performed and the influence of the capillary number, as well as the effects of geometry have been highlighted. Inertial effects have been taken into account and their influence on the pressure drop has been shown to be non-negligible. Mixing in the liquid slug has also been studied.

This thesis focuses on the study of water transportation on vehicle surfaces, which is crucial for ensuring the unobstructed operation of sensors and cameras in autonomous vehicles. The research aims to develop and validate experimental and simulation methods to enhance the understanding of water droplet behaviour and to create accurate models for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The primary objective is to investigate the feasibility of simulating water droplets using CFD. The study examines the behaviour of water droplets on a lacquered metal sheet and a glass surface. Physical experiments and CFD simulations are conducted to analyse droplet movement under the influence of gravity and airflow. The findings provide insights into the factors influencing droplet behaviour and validate the accuracy of the simulation models through physical tests. The research also discusses the limitations of the study and the implications for Volvo Cars, aiming to improve their ability to predict water droplet movement on their vehicles. / Denna avhandling fokuserar på studien av vattentransport på fordonssytor, vilket är avgörande för att säkerställa att sensorer och kameror i autonoma fordon kan fungera utan hinder. Forskningen syftar till att utveckla och validera experimentella och simuleringsmetoder för att förbättra förståelsen av vattendroppars beteende och skapa noggranna modeller för simuleringar inom beräkningsfluidmekanik (CFD). Det primära målet är att undersöka möjligheten att simulera vattendroppar med hjälp av CFD och deras påverkan på fordonssytor. Studien undersöker beteendet hos vattendroppar på en lackerad metallplåt och en glasyta med varierande lutningsvinklar. Fysiska experiment och CFD-simuleringar utförs för att analysera dropparnas rörelse under påverkan av tyngdkraft och luftström. Resultaten ger insikter om de faktorer som påverkar dropparnas beteende och validerar modellernas noggrannhet genom fysiska tester. Forskningen diskuterar även studiens begränsningar och dess implikationer för Volvo Cars, med målet att förbättra deras förmåga att förutsäga vattendroppars rörelse på deras fordon, vilket leder till effektivare vindtunneltester och säkrare fordon.

Cette thèse porte sur la formation du splash lors de l'impact de gouttes sur substrat solide. Alors que l'influence du gaz environnant a souvent été négligé par le passé, des expériences récentes ont montré que la pression du gaz pouvait contrôler la formation du splash lors de l'impact. Dans cette thèse la formation du splash est étudiée lorsque deux paramètres du gaz varient: la densité et la viscosité dynamique, paramètres par leur rapport aux propriétés du liquide. Deux mécanismes de splash sont identifiés: le splash-jet lorsqu'un jet est formé avant le contact de la goutte avec le solide, le splash-détachement lorsque le splash se forme après le contact liquide-solide. Un diagramme de phase entre ces différents mécanismes est obtenu en fonction des paramètres du gaz. L'influence d'autres paramètres, en particulier l'angle de contact est également étudiée. Finalement, le cas de l'impact d'une goutte sur un liquide très visqueux est étudié à la fois théoriquement, numériquement et expérimentalement. Une méthode numérique originale a été développée afin de prendre en compte la frontière entre les deux liquides et le solide et la comparaison avec des expériences réalisées au laboratoire est très prometteuse. Suivant la valeur de la viscosité du liquide impacté, l'impact se comporte comme dans le cas d'un impact sur surface solide. / A splash is observed under certain conditions as drop impacts on solid. Gas has been generally neglected in the splashing mechanism because of the large liquid/gas density and viscosity ratio. However, experiments demonstrated recently a genuine role of the surrounding gas. Under incompressible assumption, this thesis aims to understand the gas effect in the splashing mechanism using both analytical and numerical methods. By changing the gas density or viscosity, two mechanisms of splashing are identified: ''jet-splash'' and ''detachment-splash''. Curved transition frontiers between outcomes in function of the density and viscosity ratio are found. Both gas inertial and viscous effects are crucial in the splashing formation. The creation and lift-up of the ejecta (the small jet for a jet-splash and the thin liquid sheet for a detachment-splash) is the origin of splash and an aerodynamic force makes the lift-up occur. The contact angle can influence the impact outcome, since a hydrophilic contact angle can eliminate a splash while a hydrophobic contact angle promotes the splash. Finally, drop impact on highly-viscous liquid is investigated. A theoretical model is proposed to deal with the triple-phase dynamics in the numerics. By increasing the viscosity of the liquid basin, dynamics varies from a ''wave-like regime'' to a ''solidification regime''. Experiments of an ethanol drop impacting on a highly-viscous liquid (honey) basin are executed. The basin performed as a solid and the complete suppression of splashing by decreasing the gas pressure is observed. Drop shapes predicted by simulations agree with the experiments.

Modelling the ice accretion in glaze regime for the supercooled large droplets is one of the most challenging problems in the aircraft icing field. The difficulties are related to the presence of the liquid water film on the surface in the glaze regime and also the phenomena associated with SLD conditions, specifically the splashing and re-impingement. The steady improvement of simulation methods and the increasing demand for highly optimised aircraft performance, make it worthwhile to try to get beyond the current level of modelling accuracy. A semi-empirical method has been presented to characterize the thin water film in the icing problem based on both analytical and experimental approaches. The experiments have been performed at the Cranfield icing facilities. Imaging techniques have been used to observe and measure the features of the thin water film in the different conditions. A series of numerical simulations based on an inviscid VOF model have been performed to characterize the splashing process for different water film to droplet size ratios and impact angles. Based on these numerical simulations and the proposed methods to estimate the thin water film thickness, a framework has been presented to model the effects of the splashing in the icing simulation. These effects are the lost mass from the water film due to the splashing and the re-impingement of the ejected droplets. Finally, a new framework to study the solidification process of the thin water film has been explored. This framework is based on the lattice Boltzmann method and the preliminary results showed the capabilities of the method to model the dynamics, thermodynamics and the solidification of the thin water film.

Modelling the ice accretion in glaze regime for the supercooled large droplets is one of the most challenging problems in the aircraft icing field. The difficulties are related to the presence of the liquid water film on the surface in the glaze regime and also the phenomena associated with SLD conditions, specifically the splashing and re-impingement. The steady improvement of simulation methods and the increasing demand for highly optimised aircraft performance, make it worthwhile to try to get beyond the current level of modelling accuracy. A semi-empirical method has been presented to characterize the thin water film in the icing problem based on both analytical and experimental approaches. The experiments have been performed at the Cranfield icing facilities. Imaging techniques have been used to observe and measure the features of the thin water film in the different conditions. A series of numerical simulations based on an inviscid VOF model have been performed to characterize the splashing process for different water film to droplet size ratios and impact angles. Based on these numerical simulations and the proposed methods to estimate the thin water film thickness, a framework has been presented to model the effects of the splashing in the icing simulation. These effects are the lost mass from the water film due to the splashing and the re-impingement of the ejected droplets. Finally, a new framework to study the solidification process of the thin water film has been explored. This framework is based on the lattice Boltzmann method and the preliminary results showed the capabilities of the method to model the dynamics, thermodynamics and the solidification of the thin water film.