Tesis por compendio / [EN] Tomato spotted wilt virus is one of the most widespread and economically important viruses worldwide. It infects a large number of plant species, being the tomato and pepper the most affected. TSWV is transmitted from one plant to another by various species of thrips in a circulative and propagative manner, being Flankliniella occidentalis the main vector. The best strategy for disease control in tomato and pepper has been breeding resistant cultivars, but only tomato with the gene Sw-5 and pepper with gene Tsw have been effective against a wide spectrum of TSWV isolates, but resistance-breaking isolates often arise. To obtain a more effective and durable control is necessary: A) the genetic and biological characterization of conventional and resistance-breaking isolates of TSWV; B) the understanding the evolutionary and epidemiological factors involved in the emergence and dispersion of resistance-breaking isolates; C) the development of tools for viral detection and quantification; and D) evaluation of new sources of resistance (total or partial, estimated as the difficulty to viral infection or/and accumulation) or tolerance (total or partial, estimated as the difficulty to symptoms development and damage without affecting viral infection). In this work, TSWV isolates from Spanish tomato and pepper crops have been biologically and molecularly characterized. The complete genome of three TSWV isolates with different biotypes were sequenced: N (unable to infect Sw-5 resistant tomato and Tsw resistant pepper), T (tomato Sw-5 resistance-breaking), and P (pepper Tsw resistance-breaking). No correlation between genetic variation and the ability of overcoming resistance was found. These nucleotide sequences and others retrieved from the GenBank database were used to develop RT-qPCR, with high sensitivity and dynamic range. Primers and one TaqMan MGB were designed from conserved sequence stretches with the aim of detecting and quantifying any TSWV isolate. It was not possible to develop a molecular method to differentiate between conventional and resistance-breaking isolates since there is no correlation between genotype and biotype. Instead, two TaqMan MGB probes were designed to quantify the two main genotypes (according to the M segment) in mixed infections. RT-qPCR was used to evaluate TSWV accumulation in non-resistant tomato, non-resistant pepper and Datura stramonium (an important reservoir), as well as in the main vector F. occidentalis, which was considered to evaluate transmission efficiency. The results showed that resistance breakdown was not associated to a fitness cost (tradeoff) in the infectivity of susceptible hosts or transmissibility by thrips and that the resistance-breaking isolates have the same potential for dispersion in field as the conventional isolates. Finally, the information obtained from the previous studies and the RT-qPCR technique were used to evaluate the resistance and tolerance to TSWV of a new accession of Capsicum baccatum. In addition to considering the genetic and biological variation of TSWV, a new approach was used based on analysis of longitudinal data (those measured in the same individuals over time). The resistance level was estimated with two variables: A) absolute fitness, calculated from the variation in time of the viral titer, quantified by RT-qPCR; and B) infectition survival, the median time in which the virus was detected in a plant by ELISA. The tolerance level was estimated as symptom survival, the median time in which a plant developed severe symptoms. This analysis showed that this new accession is partially resistant and totally tolerant to TSWV conventional and resistance-breaking isolates and therefore is a good candidate for a pepper breeding program / [ES] Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) es uno de los virus más extendidos y de mayor importancia económica del mundo. Infecta a un gran número de especies vegetales, siendo los cultivos de tomate y pimiento los más afectados. Este virus se transmite de una planta a otra por trips en una manera propagativa y circulativa, siendo Flankliniella occidentalis el más eficaz. El cultivo de variedades resistentes de tomate y pimiento permitió el control de la enfermedad, ya que estos genes inducen una respuesta hipersensible impidiendo la infección sistémica del virus. Sin embargo, con frecuencia aparecen aislados del virus capaces de superar estas resistencias. Para obtener un control de la enfermedad más eficaz y duradero es necesario: A) la caracterización genética y biológica de los aislados del TSWV que superan y no superan las resistencias; B) el estudio de los factores evolutivos y epidemiológicos implicados en la aparición y establecimiento de los aislados que superan las resistencias; C) el desarrollo de herramientas que permitan la detección y cuantificación de estos aislados virales; y D) la evaluación de nuevas fuentes de resistencia o tolerancia. En este trabajo se han caracterizado biológicamente y molecularmente diferentes aislados del TSWV procedentes de cultivos de tomate y pimiento de España. Se determinó la secuencia nucleotídica del genoma completo de tres aislados españoles correspondientes a tres biotipos: N (incapaz de infectar variedades resistentes de tomate o pimiento); T (supera la resistencia Sw-5 de tomate); y P (supera la resistencia Tsw de pimiento). No se encontró correlación entre la variación genética y la capacidad de superar la resistencia. Estas secuencias nucleotídicas y otras obtenidas de la base de datos Genbank se utilizaron para desarrollar una técnica basada en la RT-PCR cuantitativa (RT-qPCR) que permite detectar el virus con un alto grado de sensibilidad y cuantificar en un amplio rango dinámico. Se diseñaron los iniciadores y una sonda TaqMan MGB a partir de segmentos de secuencia conservados para que fueran válidos para todos los aislados del TSWV. También se desarrollaron dos sondas Taqman que permitían cuantificar diferencialmente variantes genéticas del virus en infecciones mixtas. La RT-qPCR se utilizó para evaluar la acumulación de varios aislados del TSWV en tomate sin Sw-5, pimiento sin Tsw y Datura stramonium, así como, en su principal vector F. occidentalis que se usó para evaluar la eficiencia de la transmisión. Se observó que la superación de la resistencia no suponía un coste en la eficacia biológica (fitness) tanto en la multiplicación del virus en estas plantas como en la transmisión por trips. Por tanto, los aislados que superan las resistencias tienen la misma capacidad de dispersión en campo que los aislados convencionales. Por último, se utilizó la RT-qPCR y la información obtenida para evaluar la capacidad de resistencia y tolerancia al TSWV de una accesión de Capsicum baccatum. El nivel de resistencia se estimó a partir de dos variables: A) la eficacia absoluta, calculada a partir de la variación en el tiempo del título viral, cuantificado por RT-qPCR; y B) la infectividad, como la mediana del tiempo que tarda el virus en ser detectado en una planta por ELISA. El nivel de tolerancia se estimó como la mediana del tiempo que tarda una planta en mostrar síntomas graves. Esta nueva accesión es parcialmente resistente y totalmente tolerante tanto para aislados del TSWV convencionales como para aquellos capaces de infectar e inducir síntomas severos en variedades de pimiento con el gen Tsw. Por tanto, esta nueva variedad de C. baccatum es un buen candidato para usarlo en programas de mejora genética de pimiento. / [CA] Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) és un dels virus més estesos i de major importància econòmica del món. Infecta a un gran nombre d'espècies vegetals i els cultius de tomaca i pebrot són alguns dels més afectats. Aquest virus es transmet d'una planta a una altra, per trips de manera propagativa i circulativa, i Flankliniella occidentalis és el més eficaç. El cultiu de varietats resistents de tomaca i pebrot (en els quals s'han introduït per millora genètica els gens Sw-5 i Tsw, respectivament) va permetre el control de la malaltia, ja que aquests gens indueixen una resposta hipersensible i impedeixen la infecció sistèmica del virus (resistència total). No obstant açò, amb freqüència apareixen aïllats del virus que són capaços de superar aquestes resistències. Per a obtenir un control de la malaltia més eficaç i durador és necessari: A) la caracterització genètica i biològica dels aïllats del TSWV que superen i no superen les resistències; B) l'estudi dels factors evolutius i epidemiològics implicats en l'aparició i establiment dels aïllats que superen les resistències; C) el desenvolupament d'eines que permeten la detecció i quantificació d'aquests aïllats virals; i D) l'avaluació de noves fonts de resistència (total o parcial, que dificulten la infecció i multiplicació viral) o tolerància (total o parcial, que dificulten l'aparició de símptomes i danys encara que no tinguen un efecte en la infecció viral). En aquest treball s'han caracteritzat biològicament i molecularment diferents aïllats del TSWV procedents de cultius de tomaca i pebrot d'Espanya. Es va determinar la seqüència nucleotídica del genoma complet de tres aïllats espanyols corresponents a tres biotips: N (incapaç d'infectar varietats resistents de tomaca o pebrot); T (supera la resistència Sw-5 de tomaca); i P (supera la resistència Tsw de pebrot). Els resultats van mostrar que no hi havia una correlació entre la variació genètica i la capacitat de superar la resistència. Aquestes seqüències nucleotídiques i altres obtingudes de la base de dades Genbank es van utilitzar per a desenvolupar una tècnica basada en la RT-qPCR que permet detectar el virus amb un alt grau de sensibilitat i quantificar en un ampli rang dinàmic. Es van dissenyar els iniciadors i una sonda TaqMan MGB a partir de segments de seqüència conservats perquè foren vàlids per a tots els aïllats del TSWV. Tambe es van desenvolupar dos sondes Taqman que permetien quantificar diferencialment variants genètiques del virus en infeccions mixtes. La RT-qPCR es va utilitzar per a avaluar l'acumulació de diversos aïllats del TSWV en tomaca sense Sw-5, pebrot sense Tsw i Datura stramonium així com, en el seu principal vector F. occidentalis que es va usar per a avaluar l'eficiència de la transmissió. Es va observar que la superació de la resistència no suposava un cost en l'eficàcia biològica (fitness) tant en la multiplicació del virus en aquestes plantes com en la transmissió per trips. Per tant, els aïllats que superen les resistències tenen la mateixa capacitat de dispersió en camp que els aïllats convencionals. Finalment, es va utilitzar la RT-qPCR i la informació obtinguda per a avaluar la capacitat de resistència i tolerància d'una accessió de Capsicum baccatum al TSWV. El nivell de resistència es va estimar a partir de dues variables: A) l'eficàcia absoluta, calculada a partir de la variació en el temps del títol viral, quantificat per RT-qPCR; i B) la infectivitat, com la mitjana del temps que es tarda a detectar el virus en una planta per mitjèr d'ELISA. El nivell de tolerància es va estimar com la mitjana del temps que tarda una planta a mostrar símptomes greus. Aquesta nova accessió és parcialment resistent i totalment tolerant tant per a aïllats del TSWV convencionals com per a aquells capaços d'infectar i induir símptomes severs en varietats amb el gen Tsw. Per tant, aquesta nova varietat d / Debreczeni, DE. (2015). Caracterización de aislados del virus del bronceado del tomate (TSWV) que superan las resistencias de los genes Sw-5 en tomate y Tsw en pimiento. Identificación de una fuente de tolerancia en pimiento [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/51460 / Compendio

[ES] El complejo de especies de Ralstonia solanacearum es el responsable de la marchitez bacteriana, una enfermedad que afecta en todo el mundo a cultivos y plantas ornamentales de gran importancia económica. El filotipo (ft) II raza 3 biovar (bv) 2 produce la podredumbre parda de la patata y la marchitez bacteriana de las solanáceas en climas templados, y se ha introducido recientemente en algunas áreas de la Unión Europea y de Estados Unidos, donde este patógeno se considera un organismo de cuarentena. La presencia de R. solanacearum ft II raza 3 bv 2 en estas zonas ha hecho surgir ciertos interrogantes sobre la biología y la patogenicidad de esta bacteria, algunos de los cuales se han abordado en este trabajo. De esta manera, se han evaluado aspectos del comportamiento, la capacidad de supervivencia y la capacidad para la inducción de la enfermedad, de cepas de R. solanacearum ft II raza 3 bv 2 de origen europeo en diferentes especies vegetales y diversas muestras de agua medioambiental. El comportamiento en cuanto a la colonización de R. solanacearum ft II raza 3 bv 2 in planta ha permitido realizar una clasificación en huéspedes susceptibles o tolerantes y en no huéspedes, en base a la localización histológica del patógeno y su aislamiento. Se ha observado que los huéspedes susceptibles y tolerantes eran intensamente invadidos a nivel del xilema de las raíces, pero densamente o bien débilmente colonizados, respectivamente, a nivel del xilema del tallo. Ninguno de ellos debe ser considerado como candidato para la rotación de cultivos en suelos contaminados. Por otra parte, se ha observado que en los no huéspedes no se producía la invasión a nivel del xilema de la planta, aunque podría haber presencia esporádica del patógeno en el córtex de las raíces o en la superficie y, por lo tanto, algunos podrían actuar como reservorios. Los no huéspedes podrían seleccionarse para los sistemas de rotación tras su evaluación en condiciones de campo. La capacidad de supervivencia de R. solanacearum ft II raza 3 bv 2 en microcosmos de agua medioambiental se ha visto influida por factores tanto abióticos como bióticos. El patógeno ha mostrado una resistencia considerable frente a la exposición a la oligotrofía como único factor de stress. Así, desarrolló varias estrategias que le permitieron sobrevivir en microcosmos de agua medioambiental durante cuatro años bajo condiciones de limitación de nutrientes, manteniendo la capacidad de inducir la enfermedad en el huésped incluso a través de riego. Las estrategias adaptativas para superar la oligotrofía observadas durante este largo periodo han sido la respuesta de supervivencia frente a la privación de nutrientes, la entrada en el estado viable no cultivable, una transformación progresiva de las formas bacilares típicas en cocoides de reducido tamaño, los fenómenos de filamentación y gemación, y la agregación. El patógeno también ha mostrado estrategias eficientes cuando ha sido expuesto a diferentes temperaturas simultaneamente a las condiciones de escasez de nutrientes. De esta manera, a 4°C el frío indujo la entrada en un estado viable no cultivable que fue dependiente del contenido en nutrientes del agua, mientras que a 14°C y 24°C las respuestas de supervivencia frente a la privación de nutrientes, aunque aparentemente similares, revelaron un efecto de la temperatura en la formación de los cocoides. Por otra parte, la persistencia del patógeno se redujo de manera significativa en microcosmos de agua medioambiental por la actividad predadora, competitiva o lítica de los protozoos, las bacterias y/o los bacteriófagos presentes en el agua. Entre todos ellos, se demostró que los fagos líticos fueron los responsables principales del descenso en las poblaciones de R. solanacearum, si bien los protozoos y las otras bacterias contribuyeron en cierta medida. El efecto fue más apreciable a 24°C que a 14°C debido a que las interacciones bióticas fueron más lentas a la temperatura más baja. Esta bacteria ha mostrado una gran capacidad de adaptación, consiguiendo sobrevivir y mantener su poder patógeno en prácticamente todas las condiciones ensayadas. La finalidad de este trabajo ha sido contribuir al progreso del conocimiento de las interacciones entre R. solanacearum ft II raza 3 bv 2 y sus ambientes naturales, para mejorar las estrategias preventivas tanto de la diseminación del patógeno como de la propagación de la marchitez bacteriana en dichos hábitats. / [EN] The Ralstonia solanacearum species complex causes bacterial wilt, a plant disease affecting economically important crops and ornamentals worldwide. The phylotype (ph) II race 3 biovar (bv) 2 produces potato brown rot and bacterial wilt in solanaceous plants in temperate climates and has recently been introduced to several areas of the European Union and the USA, where the pathogen has a quarantine status. Presence of R. solanacearum ph II race 3 bv 2 in these zones raised questions on biological and phytopathological aspects of this bacterium, some of them being addressed in this work. Thus behaviour, ability for survival and disease inducing capacity of European R. solanacearum ph II race 3 bv 2 have been assessed in a range of different plant species and diverse surface run-off water samples. Behaviour of R. solanacearum ph II race 3 bv 2 in planta has led to a classification in susceptible or tolerant hosts and non-hosts, based on the pathogen histological localization and isolation. Susceptible and tolerant hosts were highly invaded in root xylem but, heavily or weakly colonized respectively in stem xylem. They are to be avoided as candidates for crop rotation. Non-hosts were not invaded in plant xylem but, occasional presence of the pathogen in root cortex or on surface might occur and so, some of them might act as reservoirs. They could be selected for crop rotation systems after being carefully tested in open field conditions. Ability for survival of R. solanacearum ph II race 3 bv 2 in environmental water microcosms has been influenced by abiotic and biotic factors. When faced to oligotrophy as the only stressing factor the pathogen displayed a considerable endurance. It resorted to a number of survival strategies which enabled it to survive in environmental water microcosms over four years under starvation, retaining disease inducing capacity in the host even by watering. Adaptations to overcome nutrient limitation during the long period were starvation-survival responses, the entrance into a viable but non-culturable state, progressive transformation from the typical bacillar shape into coccoid forms reduced in size, filamentation and budding phenomena and aggregation. Survival strategies were also successfully exhibited by the pathogen when exposed to environmental temperatures simultaneously to nutrient scarcity conditions. Thus, at 4°C a viable but non-culturable state dependent on water nutrient contents was cold-induced, whilst at 14°C and 24°C apparently similar starvation-survival responses revealed a distinct effect of temperature on coccoid formation. On the other hand, indigenous freshwater protozoa, bacteria and/or phages with predatory, competitive or lytic activity reduced significantly pathogen persistence. Among them, lytic bacteriophages were the main responsible for the decrease in R. solanacearum populations, although protozoa and other bacteria also contributed. The effect was more appreciable at 24°C than at 14°C because of slower biotic interactions at the lower temperature. The pathogen was able to adapt itself, succeeding in surviving and keeping pathogenic in almost all condition. This work intends to contribute to the progress in the knowledge of the interactions between R. solanacearum ph II race 3 bv 2 and natural environments, which may allow to improve the strategies to prevent pathogen dissemination and bacterial wilt spread in natural settings. / [FR] Le complexe d'espèces de Ralstonia solanacearum est l'agent causal du flétrissement bactérien, une maladie qui affecte des cultures et des plantes ornementales de grande importance économique dans le monde entier. Le phylotype (phyl) II race 3 biovar (bv) 2 produit la pourriture brune de la pomme de terre et d’une manière générale le flétrissement bactérien des Solanacées dans les climats tempérés. Ce phylotype II a récemment été introduit dans des certaines régions de l'Union Européenne et des États-Unis, où cette bactérie est considérée comme un pathogène de quarantaine. La présence de R. solanacearum phyl II race 3 bv 2 dans ces régions a soulevé quelques questions au sujet de sa biologie et de son pouvoir pathogène, questions qui ont été abordées dans ce travail. Nous avons notamment évalué, chez R. solanacearum phyl II race 3 bv 2 d'origine européenne, l'aptitude à survivre dans divers échantillons de l'eau environnementale de surface et la capacité à induire la maladie dans des différentes espèces de plantes cultivées. Notre étude de la capacité de colonisation de R. solanacearum phyl II race 3 bv 2 in planta a permis une classification en hôtes sensibles ou tolérants et non hôtes sur la base de la localisation histologique de l'agent pathogène et de son isolement in planta. Il a été noté que les hôtes sensibles et tolérants sont intensément envahis à niveau du xylème des racines, mais fortement ou faiblement colonisés à niveau du xylème de la tige chez les plantes sensibles ou tolérantes respectivement. Aucune de ces plantes ne doit être recommandée comme candidat dans une rotation culturale. En outre, nous avons noté que le xylème des plantes non hôtes n’est pas envahi, bien que l’on puisse noter la présence sporadique de l'agent pathogène dans le cortex des racines ou sur la surface racinaire. Cela signifie que certaines plantes non hôtes pourraient potentiellement être des réservoirs d’inoculum latent. En conséquence les plantes non hôtes qui pourraient être recommandées dans des systèmes de rotation culturale doivent être évaluées non seulement au laboratoire mais aussi au champ dans des conditions naturelles. Nous avons montré que la capacité de survie de R. solanacearum phyl II race 3 bv 2 dans des microcosmes de l'eau environnementale, préalablement filtrée ou autoclavée, est influencée par des facteurs abiotiques et biotiques. L'agent pathogène fait preuve d'une résistance considérable quand il est exposé à l'oligotrophie comme seul facteur de stress. Nous avons mis en évidence différentes stratégies utilisées par cette bactérie pour survivre plus de quatre ans dans des conditions de limitation des éléments nutritifs dans des microcosmes de l'eau environnementale tout en maintenant sa capacité d'induction de la maladie chez un hôte sensible à la suite de sa dissémination par irrigation. Les adaptations utilisées par cette bactérie pour surmonter l'oligotrophie au cours de cette longue période ont été l'entrée dans l'état viable non cultivable, une transformation progressive des typiques formes bacillaires vers des formes coccoïdes de petite taille, des phénomènes de filamentation et de bourgeonnement et d'agrégation. L'agent pathogène a également utilisé des stratégies efficaces quand il a été exposé à des différentes températures de l'environnement en même temps qu'à des conditions de limitation des éléments nutritifs. Ainsi à 4°C le froid a entraîné un état viable non cultivable qui a été dépendant de la teneur en éléments nutritifs de l'eau. Par contre à 14°C et 24°C les réponses de survie face à la privation des éléments nutritifs ont induit la formation de formes coccoïdes. En outre, la persistance de l'agent pathogène a été considérablement réduite dans des microcosmes de l'eau environnementale par l'activité prédatrice, compétitive ou lytique des protozoaires, des bactéries et/ou des bactériophages qui étaient contenus dans de l'eau. Notamment, il a été constaté que les phages lytiques sont les principaux responsables de la baisse des populations de R. solanacearum, bien que les protozoaires et d'autres bactéries aient également contribués dans une certaine mesure. L'effet a été plus sensible à 24°C qu'à 14°C en raison d'interactions biotiques plus lentes aux températures plus basses. En conclusion cette bactérie a démontré une grande capacité pour s'adapter, survivre et de maintenir son pouvoir pathogène dans pratiquement toutes les conditions couramment rencontrées dans les conditions naturelles. Le but de ce travail a été de contribuer à l'avancement de la connaissance des interactions entre R. solanacearum phyl II race 3 bv 2 et les milieux aquatiques naturels ou les plantes hôtes potentielles, dans l’espoir de développer les meilleures stratégies pour empêcher la propagation de l'agent pathogène et donc du flétrissement bactérien dans ces environnements. / [CA] El complex d'espècies de Ralstonia solanacearum és l'agent causal del pansiment bacterià, una malaltia vegetal que afecta a tot el món a cultius i plantes ornamentals de gran importància econòmica. El filotipo (fil) II raça 3 biovar (bv) 2 produeix la podridura marró de la patata i el pansiment bacterià en plantes solanàcies de climes temperats, i s'ha introduït recentment en algunes àrees de la Unió Europea i dels Estats Units, on aquest patogen es considera de quarantena. La presència de R. solanacearum fil II raça 3 bv 2 en aquestes zones ha fet sorgir certs interrogants sobre qüestions biològiques i fitopatològiques d'aquest bacteri, algunes de les quals s'han abordat en aquest treball. D'aquesta manera s'han valorat aspectes del comportament, la capacitat de supervivència i la capacitat per a la inducció de la malaltia, de R. solanacearum fil II raça 3 bv 2 de procedència europea en diferents espècies vegetals i diverses mostres d'aigua d'escorrentia superficial. El comportament pel que fa a la colonització de R. solanacearum fil II raça 3 bv 2 in planta ha proporcionat una classificació en hostes susceptibles o tolerants i en no hostes, en base a la localització histològica del patogen i el seu aïllament. S'observà que els hostes susceptibles i tolerants eren intensament envaïts a nivell del xilema de les arrels, però densament o bé feblement colonitzats respectivament a nivell del xilema de la tija. Cap d'ells ha de ser considerat com a candidat per a la rotació cultural. D'altra banda, es va observar que els no hostes no eren envaïts en el xilema de la planta, encara que podria haver presència esporàdica del patogen en el còrtex de les arrels o a la surperfície i, per tant, alguns podrien actuar com a reservoris. Els no hostes podrien ser seleccionats per als sistemes de rotació cultural després d'haver estat avaluats en condicions de camp. La capacitat de supervivència de R. solanacearum fil II raça 3 bv 2 en microcosmos d'aigua mediambiental s'ha vist influïda per factors abiòtics i biòtics. El patogen ha mostrat una resistència considerable quan ha estat exposat a l'oligotrofia com a únic factor d'estrès. Així, va recórrer a diverses estratègies que li van permetre sobreviure en microcosmos d'aigua mediambiental durant quatre anys sota condicions de limitació de nutrients, mantenint la capacitat per a la inducció de la malaltia en l'hoste fins i tot a través de reg. Les adaptacions per superar l'oligotrofia que s'han observat durant aquest llarg període han estat respostes de supervivència front a la privació de nutrients, l'entrada en l'estat viable no cultivable, una transformació progressiva de les típiques formes bacilars a cocoids de reduït tamany, els fenòmens de filamentació i gemmació, i l'agregació. El patogen també ha mostrat estratègies eficients quan ha estat exposat a diferents temperatures mediambientals simultàneament a les condicions d'escassetat de nutrients. D'aquesta manera, a 4°C el fred va induir un estat viable no cultivable que va ser dependent del contingut en nutrients de l'aigua, mentre que a 14°C i 24°C les respostes de supervivència front a la privació de nutrients, encara que aparentment similars, van revelar un efecte de la temperatura a la formació dels cocoids. D'altra banda, la persistència del patogen s'ha vist significativament reduïda en microcosmos d'aigua mediambiental per l'activitat predadora, competitiva o lítica dels protozous, els bacteris i/o els bacteriòfags que contenia l'aigua. Entre tots ells, es va determinar que els fags lítics eren els responsables principals del descens en les poblacions de R. solanacearum, si bé els protozous i els altres bacteris van contribuir en certa mesura. L'efecte va ser més apreciable a 24°C que a 14°C degut a que les interaccions biòtiques van ser més lentes a la temperatura més baixa. Aquest bacteri ha mostrat una gran capacitat d'adaptació, aconseguint sobreviure i mantenir el seu poder patogènic en pràcticament totes les condicions. La finalitat d'aquest treball és contribuir al progrés del coneixement de les interaccions entre R. solanacearum fil II raça 3 bv 2 i els seus ambients naturals, el que pot desenvolupar una millora de les estratègies per a la prevenció tant de la disseminació del patogen com de la propagació del pansiment bacterià en aquests ambients. / B. Álvarez specially thanks the Marie Curie Foundation for a Marie Curie Fellowship at the IFR40 in Toulouse (France) and the Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias for a predoctoral grant. This work has been funded by the European contract QLK3-CT-2000-01598 acronym “Potatocontrol” and FAIR 5-CT97-3632 of the European Union, FD 1997-2279 of the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia of Spain and GV05/214 of the Generalitat Valenciana. / Álvarez Ortega, MB. (2009). Biology of Ralstonia Solanacearum Phylotype II in Host and Non-Host Environments [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/191532

Devido ao aumento da preocupação com o impacto dos agrotóxicos no meio ambiente e na saúde humana, busca-se uma agricultura sustentável. É no âmbito dessa questão que a resistência induzida torna-se uma ferramenta fundamental no manejo integrado de doenças e indispensável para uma nova agricultura, mais racional e sustentável. Dentre os diversos agentes bióticos e abióticos, utilizados em trabalhos de indução de resistência de plantas a patógenos, os cogumelos Lentinula edodes e Agaricus blazei vem sendo pesquisados. Desse modo, este trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar o efeito de diferentes isolados de L. edodes e A. blazei e do acibenzolar-S-metil (aSm) in vitro contra as bactérias e o controle de doenças de importância econômica para as culturas do tomate e da berinjela, em casa-de-vegetação. Depois de obtida a proteção, estudar os possíveis mecanismos bioquímicos ativados nas plantas através do uso dos extratos dos cogumelos e buscar a purificação parcial destes extratos, a fim de identificar o(s) princípio(s) ativo(s). No patossistema berinjela/Ralstonia, os extratos aquosos dos cogumelos não exerceram nenhum efeito direto sobre o patógeno, sendo que os isolados Abl-11 e Abl-28 de de A. blazei reduziram significativamente a ocorrência de folhas murchas das plantas em casa-devegetação, em relação aos demais tratamentos. Ocorreu um aumento na atividade da peroxidase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase nas folhas tratadas. O preciptado 60-80% obtido pela precipitação com sulfato de amônia e a fração 4 da cromatografia de troca aniônica (CTA) de Abl-28 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas, sendo que a separação eletroforética revelou a presença de uma banda no gel com aproximadamente 29 kDa nesta fração. Em tomate, os extratos aquosos dos isolados dos cogumelos e o acibenzolar-S-metil não exerceram nenhum efeito inibitório in vitro no crescimento de Ralstonia solanacearum e Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. Porém, os isolados Abl-26 de A. blazei, Le-96/17 de L. edodes e aSm foram os que conferiram maior proteção das plantas de tomates contra os patógenos, diminuindo a ocorrência de folhas murchas, proporcionando um aumento na atividade da peroxidase no patossistema tomate/Ralstonia e um aumento na atividade de peroxidase, quitinase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase no patossistema tomate/Clavibacter. O preciptado 40-80% de Le-96/17 foi submetido à CTA, obtendo-se seis frações protéicas. As frações 3 e 4, junto com aSm e o extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas. A separação eletroforética destas frações da CTA, do preciptado 40-80% e do extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 revelaram a presença de mais de uma banda no gel na fração 3 e 4 da CTA, no preciptado 40-80% e no extrato aquoso bruto de Le-96/17. Com base nos resultados, os cogumelos A. blazei e L. edodes apresentam compostos que induziram resistência em plantas berinjela e tomate, podendo auxiliar no controle de doenças. / Because the increase of the impact of chemical products in the environment and in human health, a search by sustainable agriculture is needed. It is in the scope of this problem that the induced resistance becomes a tool in the integrated management of pests and diseases and indispensable for a new agriculture, more rational and sustainable. Among the biotic and abiotic agents used to induce resistance, the mushrooms Lentinula edodes and Agaricus blazei have being studied. Thus, the objectives of the present work were evaluate the effects of different isolates of L. edodes and A. blazei and of the acibenzolar-S-methyl (aSm) on in vitro bacterial growth and the control of the diseases in tomato and eggplant under greenhouse conditions. The studies also tried to elucidate the mode of action of the extracts from the fruiting bodies and partially purify them. In eggplant plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushroom isolates did not have any direct effect on the pathogen. The isolates Abl-11 and Abl-28 of A. blazei reduced the wilt in eggplant leaves, under greenhouse conditions, and increased peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in treated leaves. The fraction of aqueous extract of A. blazei (Abl-28) obtained with ammonium sulfhate and fraction 4 from anion exchange chromatography reduced bacterial wilt and a protein fraction exhibiting molecular mass around 29 kDa was obtained. In tomato plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushrooms and the acibenzolar-S-methyl did not inhibit in vitro growth of Ralstonia solanacearum and Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. However, the isolates Abl-26 of A. blazei, Le-96/17 of L. edodes and aSm protected tomato plants against the bacterial pathogens, reducing the wilt and causing an increase in peroxidase activity in the tomato/Ralstonia interaction and an increase in peroxidase, chitinase, phenylalanine ammonialyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in the tomato/Clavibacter interaction. The ammonium sulphate fraction of Le-96/17 was submitted to anion exchange chromatography, and the proteins from fractions 3 and 4, aSm and the aqueous extract of Le-96/17 reduced the occurrence of wilt in the leaves. A protein fraction exhibiting proteins with molecular mass around 29, 37 and 45 kDA was obtained in fractions 3 and 4. Thus, the results showed that the mushrooms A. blazei and L. edodes edodes have substances that induce resistance in eggplant and tomato plants.

In the genus Fusarium are many important plant pathogens. The diversity of hosts the genus attacks, the number of pathogenic taxa and the range of habitats in which they cause disease are the greatest in plant pathology. One important species complex within the genus Fusarium is Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. This species complex consists more than 80 pathogenic forma specialis and is particularly difficult to control. The fungi can survive in soil for decades as specialized spores, known as chlamydospores. Interestingly, however, this species complex also contains beneficial non-pathogenic forms that can be exploited to manage Fusarium wilt diseases. In this study, the ability of non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains, Trichoderma harzianum Rifai Eco-T®, soluble silicon, and their combination was evaluated on two important crops, banana (Musa sp. L.) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), for their potential to suppress pathogenic strains of F. oxysporum. The ability of these crops to take up and accumulate silicon in their organs, and its effect on low temperature stress was also investigated. Several endophytic fungi, mainly Fusarium spp. and bacteria, were isolated from healthy mature banana plants. After preliminary and secondary in vivo screening tests against F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli on beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cv. Outeniqua, two non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains were selected for further testing. These two non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains were found to colonize banana (Musa sp.) cv. Cavendish Williams and bean plants, and to suppress Fusarium wilt of these crops. In order to improve the efficacy of these biocontrol fungi, soluble silicon was introduced. The relationship between plant mineral nutrition and plant diseases have been reported by several authors. Plants take up silicon equivalent to some macronutrients, although it is not widely recognized as an essential element. In this study, we established that roots, the target plant organ for soilborne plant pathogens, accumulated the greatest quantity of silicon of any plant organs when fertilized with high concentrations of silicon. On the other hand, the corm and stem accumulated the least silicon. Such observations contradict the concept of passive uptake of silicon via the transpiration stream in these plants as the only uptake mechanism. The prophylactic properties of silicon have been documented for many crops against a variety of diseases. In vitro bioassay tests of silicon against these wilt pathogens showed that silicon can be toxic to Fusarium wilt fungi at high concentrations (>7840 mg .-1), resulting in complete inhibition of hyphal growth, spore germination and sporulation. However, low concentrations of silicon (<490 mg .-1) encouraged hyphal growth. Silicon fertilization of banana and beans significantly reduced disease severity of these crops by reducing the impact of the Fusarium wilt pathogens on these crops. However, it could not prevent infection of plants from the wilt pathogens on its own. Synergistic responses were obtained from combined applications of silicon and non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains against Fusarium wilt of banana. Combinations of silicon with the non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains significantly suppressed disease severity of Fusarium wilt of banana, caused by F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense (E.F. Smith) Snyder & Hansen, better than applications of either control measure on their own. Banana production in the subtropical regions frequently suffer from chilling injury, and from extreme variations between night and day temperatures. Such stress predisposes banana plants to Fusarium wilt disease. Silicon, on the other hand, is emerging as important mineral in the physiology of many plants, ameliorating a variety of biotic and abiotic stress factors. We established that silicon fertilization of banana plants significantly reduced chilling injury of banana plants. Membrane permeability, lipid peroxidation (MDA level) and proline levels were higher in silicon-untreated plants than the treated ones, all of which demonstrated the stress alleviating effect of silicon. Low temperatures damage the cell membrane of susceptible plants and cause desiccation or dehydration of these cells. Levels of sucrose and raffinose, recognized as cryoprotectants, were significantly higher in silicon-amended banana plants than unamended plants. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh] is a very important grain legume crop for food, cash and firewood in Malawi. However, its production is affected by Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum Butler), which causes up to 100% yield loss. The deployment of resistant varieties would be an economical way to manage the disease, and for this, more information is needed on farmers' preferences for local landraces, how farmers and consumers can be involved in developing new varieties resistant to wilt disease, and the genetics of inheritance of resistance. This information would be used to devise a breeding strategy. A participatory rural appraisal was used in the southern region of Malawi to identify pigeonpea production and marketing constraints. Results showed that Fusarium wilt was the most prevalent and destructive disease of pigeonpea in the area. Other constraints included pests, flower abortion, low yields, and low soil fertility. Local landraces accounted for 84% of the pigeonpea production in Malawi. Local landraces were preferred due to their fast cooking time, taste, and the high prices they earn the farmer. Participatory variety selection was used to identify landraces with desirable traits that could be used in the breeding programme. Farmers and buyers selected ten local landraces which were used in the genetic improvement programme. Pigeonpea local landraces and international Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) genotypes were evaluated for wilt resistance, yield, and secondary traits at three sites over three seasons. Most of the landraces were susceptible to wilt and late maturing. However, AP10, a local landrace, was high yielding and resistant to wilt and outperformed ICRISAT varieties. This local landrace showed promise for use as a source material for Fusarium wilt resistance in other locally adapted farmer-preferred varieties lacking resistance. The local landraces needed genetic improvement in wilt resistance, yield, early maturity, number of branches and seeds pod. Laboratory and screenhouse studies were performed to develop a new Fusarium wilt screening technique. Grains of finger millet, sorghum, and wheat were tested as media for multiplying F. udum isolates. Pathogenicity tests were done on Bunda College and Bvumbwe Research Station isolates. The Bunda isolate was then used in an infested-seed inoculation technique against eight differential cultivars. The results showed that finger millet, sorghum and wheat were equally effective for rapid multiplication of F. udum isolates. Wheat grain showed the best results for pathogen multiplication and inoculation, due to the large seed size for easy handling. The inoculation process involved placing infested wheat grain on bruised pigeonpea roots and transplanting into soil in pots. The infested seed inoculation technique, which is the first of its kind for pigeonpea, was effective in screening pigeonpea for wilt resistance. The selected landraces were crossed with wilt resistant testers in a 12 lines x 4 testers mating scheme, and 48 F1 crosses were generated. These F1 crosses were evaluated for wilt resistance, yield, and secondary traits. The variations among F1 crosses for wilt and secondary traits were due to additive gene action in both parents and the dominance effects arising from the interactions of parents. Parental lines, with good combining ability effects for wilt resistance (AP2, AP3, and AP4), days to 50% flowering, seed pod, plant height, stem diameter, and number of primary and secondary branches were identified, while ICEAP00554 (tester) was a good general combiner for wilt resistance and days to 50% flowering. These lines would be useful in breeding for Fusarium wilt resistance in farmer-preferred pigeonpea genotypes in Malawi or similar environments. Specific F1 crosses were identified with significant SCAs for wilt resistance, days to 50% flowering, and secondary branches. The significance of GCA and SCA effects, which indicated importance of both additive and non-additive gene effects, respectively, suggested that both selection and hybridisation would be useful to improve the resistance in farmer-preferred varieties. Segregation analyses were conducted on F2 populations to determine the resistance to susceptibility phenotypic ratios. The Chi-square analyses showed that resistance to wilt was dominant over susceptibility in most F2 populations. The segregation ratios of 3:1, 13:3, 15:1, and 9:7 (R:S) indicated that either one dominant gene, or two inhibitory genes, or two independent dominant genes, or two complementary genes, respectively, were conferring wilt resistance in these crosses. Involvement of only a few genes governing wilt resistance suggested few complications, if any, in breeding for this trait in these locally adapted pigeonpeas. The Pedigree breeding method would be recommended for incorporating these traits. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

La verticilliose est causée par des agents pathogènes telluriques du genre Verticillium. Elle est, depuis sa découverte dans les années 50, maladie majeure du tournesol en Argentine où des sources de résistances ont été identifiées. En France, c’est une maladie de plus en plus fréquente, observée chaque année sur de nouvelles zones de production. Elle suscite désormais des efforts dans la recherche de moyens de lutte sur ce territoire. Ce travail s’est concentré sur l’étude des interactions Tournesol - agents causals de la verticilliose à deux niveaux d’observation : celui du système de culture (français vs. argentin) et celui de l’individu. L’objectif est d’apporter des connaissances sur l’agent causal et sur le déterminisme moléculaire dans la résistance à la verticilliose du tournesol afin de développer un modèle de criblage de résistances à grande échelle. L’étude de la maladie dans les systèmes de culture a permis de mettre en évidence l’existence d’une différence significative de la réponse du tournesol à Verticillium entre la France et l’Argentine. L’étude moléculaire des pathogènes vasculaires in planta, échantillonnés dans les 2 systèmes de culture, a permis de confirmer l’implication majeure de V. dahliae dans la verticilliose du tournesol. En conditions contrôlées, une étude comparative de la pathogénicité de plusieurs isolats de V. dahliae (de la tomate, du coton, du sol) sur le tournesol a mis en évidence que seul l’isolat 85S, isolé à partir du tournesol, est capable de le coloniser et de provoquer des symptômes. L’étude du génome de l’isolat 85S révèle que cet isolat n’appartient à aucune branche existante de l’arbre phylogénétique ; il forme un groupe per se, associé aux isolats non défoliant du coton mais infectant la tomate. L’hypothèse de la spécificité de la réponse induite dans l’hypocotyle et les feuilles du tournesol par certains isolats de V. dahliae a été confirmée en étudiant la cinétique de l’expression de 9 gènes associés à la défense, 5 semaines après inoculation. Le tournesol met uniquement en place son système de défense en réponse à l’infection par 85S. La réponse semble induite ; la colonisation n’est pas systémique, la biomasse fongique n’a pas été détectée dans l’hypocotyle et les feuilles de l’hybride asymptomatique. L’ensemble de ces travaux a conduit au développement d’un modèle pour le criblage de résistances à Verticillium chez le tournesol. Celui-ci répond aux contraintes liées à la diversité du pathogène dans les méga-environnements, conséquences de pressions de sélection différentielles. / Verticillium wilt is caused by soil-borne fungi of the genus Verticillium. From its discovery in the 50’s, sunflower Verticillium wilt is a major disease in Argentina where sources of resistances have been identified. Since few years, the disease occurs more frequently in France raising concerns on sources of resistances discoveries regarding its spread to other sunflower French production areas. This work focus on the study of Sunflower- causals agent of Verticillium wilt interaction at 2 levels of observation: at the cultural system (French vs Argentinian) and at the plant individual scale. The aim is to provide identification of the causal agents and knowledge on the molecular determinism of sunflower resistances to implement high-throughput plant phenotyping approach. Disease symptom studies within the cultural systems reveal a significant difference in the phenotypic expression of sunflower against Verticillium pressure according to the location in France or in Argentina. Molecular studies of isolates in planta, from naturally infested field in cultural systems reveal the major implication of V. dahliae in the sunflower Verticillium wilt disease. In controlled conditions, comparative studies of V. dahliae isolates pathogenicity (isolated from cotton, tomato and soil) on sunflower reveal that only 85S, isolated from sunflower is able to colonize and provoke symptoms. Genomic studies of 85S isolates reveal that the isolate did not belong to any branch of the current phylogenetic tree; 85S makes a 'per se' group within the cotton non-defoliating but tomato infecting strains. Specificity of induced responses in sunflower hypocotyl and leaves by only some of V. dahliae isolates have been confirmed through a gene expression kinetic analysis of 9 defenses related genes on 5 weeks post inoculation. Sunflower genotype is responding only to the 85S isolate. Resistance seems to be induced; colonization is not systemic as pathogen biomass has been detected but not quantify in symptomless cultivar. Our study finally leads to the implementation of Verticillium resistances screening model on the sunflower with respect to the constraints related to the pathogen diversity from the different environments, according to differential selection pressure.

Devido ao aumento da preocupação com o impacto dos agrotóxicos no meio ambiente e na saúde humana, busca-se uma agricultura sustentável. É no âmbito dessa questão que a resistência induzida torna-se uma ferramenta fundamental no manejo integrado de doenças e indispensável para uma nova agricultura, mais racional e sustentável. Dentre os diversos agentes bióticos e abióticos, utilizados em trabalhos de indução de resistência de plantas a patógenos, os cogumelos Lentinula edodes e Agaricus blazei vem sendo pesquisados. Desse modo, este trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar o efeito de diferentes isolados de L. edodes e A. blazei e do acibenzolar-S-metil (aSm) in vitro contra as bactérias e o controle de doenças de importância econômica para as culturas do tomate e da berinjela, em casa-de-vegetação. Depois de obtida a proteção, estudar os possíveis mecanismos bioquímicos ativados nas plantas através do uso dos extratos dos cogumelos e buscar a purificação parcial destes extratos, a fim de identificar o(s) princípio(s) ativo(s). No patossistema berinjela/Ralstonia, os extratos aquosos dos cogumelos não exerceram nenhum efeito direto sobre o patógeno, sendo que os isolados Abl-11 e Abl-28 de de A. blazei reduziram significativamente a ocorrência de folhas murchas das plantas em casa-devegetação, em relação aos demais tratamentos. Ocorreu um aumento na atividade da peroxidase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase nas folhas tratadas. O preciptado 60-80% obtido pela precipitação com sulfato de amônia e a fração 4 da cromatografia de troca aniônica (CTA) de Abl-28 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas, sendo que a separação eletroforética revelou a presença de uma banda no gel com aproximadamente 29 kDa nesta fração. Em tomate, os extratos aquosos dos isolados dos cogumelos e o acibenzolar-S-metil não exerceram nenhum efeito inibitório in vitro no crescimento de Ralstonia solanacearum e Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. Porém, os isolados Abl-26 de A. blazei, Le-96/17 de L. edodes e aSm foram os que conferiram maior proteção das plantas de tomates contra os patógenos, diminuindo a ocorrência de folhas murchas, proporcionando um aumento na atividade da peroxidase no patossistema tomate/Ralstonia e um aumento na atividade de peroxidase, quitinase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase no patossistema tomate/Clavibacter. O preciptado 40-80% de Le-96/17 foi submetido à CTA, obtendo-se seis frações protéicas. As frações 3 e 4, junto com aSm e o extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas. A separação eletroforética destas frações da CTA, do preciptado 40-80% e do extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 revelaram a presença de mais de uma banda no gel na fração 3 e 4 da CTA, no preciptado 40-80% e no extrato aquoso bruto de Le-96/17. Com base nos resultados, os cogumelos A. blazei e L. edodes apresentam compostos que induziram resistência em plantas berinjela e tomate, podendo auxiliar no controle de doenças. / Because the increase of the impact of chemical products in the environment and in human health, a search by sustainable agriculture is needed. It is in the scope of this problem that the induced resistance becomes a tool in the integrated management of pests and diseases and indispensable for a new agriculture, more rational and sustainable. Among the biotic and abiotic agents used to induce resistance, the mushrooms Lentinula edodes and Agaricus blazei have being studied. Thus, the objectives of the present work were evaluate the effects of different isolates of L. edodes and A. blazei and of the acibenzolar-S-methyl (aSm) on in vitro bacterial growth and the control of the diseases in tomato and eggplant under greenhouse conditions. The studies also tried to elucidate the mode of action of the extracts from the fruiting bodies and partially purify them. In eggplant plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushroom isolates did not have any direct effect on the pathogen. The isolates Abl-11 and Abl-28 of A. blazei reduced the wilt in eggplant leaves, under greenhouse conditions, and increased peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in treated leaves. The fraction of aqueous extract of A. blazei (Abl-28) obtained with ammonium sulfhate and fraction 4 from anion exchange chromatography reduced bacterial wilt and a protein fraction exhibiting molecular mass around 29 kDa was obtained. In tomato plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushrooms and the acibenzolar-S-methyl did not inhibit in vitro growth of Ralstonia solanacearum and Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. However, the isolates Abl-26 of A. blazei, Le-96/17 of L. edodes and aSm protected tomato plants against the bacterial pathogens, reducing the wilt and causing an increase in peroxidase activity in the tomato/Ralstonia interaction and an increase in peroxidase, chitinase, phenylalanine ammonialyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in the tomato/Clavibacter interaction. The ammonium sulphate fraction of Le-96/17 was submitted to anion exchange chromatography, and the proteins from fractions 3 and 4, aSm and the aqueous extract of Le-96/17 reduced the occurrence of wilt in the leaves. A protein fraction exhibiting proteins with molecular mass around 29, 37 and 45 kDA was obtained in fractions 3 and 4. Thus, the results showed that the mushrooms A. blazei and L. edodes edodes have substances that induce resistance in eggplant and tomato plants.

La verticilliose de la luzerne cultivée (Medicago sativa L.) est une maladie de flétrissement vasculaire causée par le champignon du sol Verticillium alfalfae. C’est une des maladies les plus dévastatrices et les plus difficiles à contrôler. Les symptômes sont un jaunissement des feuilles suivi de flétrissement et défoliation. Les structures de dormance produites en fin de cycle de maladie constituent une source de contamination pour plusieurs années. Aucun traitement fongicide n’est efficace, la seule méthode de contrôle reste la production de variétés résistantes. En raison de sa nature tétraploïde et de son allogamie, il est difficile de réaliser des études génétiques sur M. sativa. Un pathosystème entre la légumineuse modèle Medicago truncatula et V. alfalfae a été mis au point pour étudier les mécanismes mis en place au cours de l’interaction entre V. alfalfae et son hôte. Les lignées A17 et F83005.5 ont été identifiées comme étant respectivement résistante et sensible à la souche V31-2 de V. alfalfae. La première partie de ce travail de thèse est une étude comparative du processus d’infection de V. alfalfae V31-2 au cours d’une interaction compatible et incompatible. Nous avons étudié la cinétique de colonisation des racines d’A17 et F83005.5 avec la souche V31-2 exprimant le gène marqueur GFP ce qui confère une fluorescence verte au champignon. Les observations en microscopie confocale ont montré que le champignon se développait dans les racines des deux lignées contrastées de façon similaire pendant les premières étapes d’infection. Quelques jours plus tard, il n’était plus détectable dans la lignée résistante, tandis qu’il colonisait les vaisseaux du xylème dans la lignée sensible et avançait vers les parties aériennes. La lignée résistante A17 était donc capable d’inhiber totalement le développement du pathogène dans la partie racinaire. Ce résultat a été confirmé par la quantification de l’ADN du pathogène dans la racine et dans les parties aériennes. Nous avons conclu que la lignée A17 exprime une résistance totale à V. alfalfae. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons cherché à identifier le rôle des hormones dans les mécanismes de défense de M. truncatula en réalisant des traitements exogènes avec l’acide salicylique (SA), le méthyl jasmonate (MeJA), l’éthylène (ET), l’auxine et l’acide abscissique (ABA). Ces traitements n’avaient aucun effet sur la résistance d’A17, mais toutes les hormones, à l’exception du MeJA, protégeaient la lignée sensible contre les symptômes de la maladie. La quantification de l’ADN du champignon in planta a montré que seule l’ABA inhibait significativement le développement du pathogène. Dans la troisième partie, nous avons cherché à identifier des acteurs moléculaires impliqués dans la résistance et la sensibilité en comparant le transcriptome de la lignée F83005.5 et A17 dans la phase précoce de l’infection. L’analyse des gènes différentiellement exprimés en réponse à l’inoculation montre que les deux lignées induisent des gènes impliqués dans la production de métabolites secondaires, et des gènes des voies de signalisation hormonale. Mais seule la lignée résistante montre une induction de l’expression de gènes de résistance et de gènes impliqués dans les voies de signalisation tels que des gènes de la synthèse de l’ABA et des facteurs de transcription. Ces résultats renforcent l’hypothèse que l’ABA serait un facteur important dans la résistance à V. alfalfae chez M. truncatula. L’analyse des réseaux de gènes coexprimés a montré une désorganisation de la réponse de la lignée F83005.5. En revanche, dans la lignée A17, on observe une réponse organisée et orientée vers la défense. Ce travail décrit pour la première fois les mécanismes de défense de M. truncatula contre V. alfalfae. L’ensemble des résultats montre que la résistance exprimée chez la lignée A17 est différente des mécanismes de résistance contre la verticilliose décrits chez la tomate et le coton. / Verticllium wilt of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a vascular disease caused by the soil fungus Verticillium alfalfae. It is one of the most devastating diseases and most difficult to control. Symptoms are leaf yellowing followed by wilting and defoliation. Survival structures which are produced at the end of the disease cycle are a source of inoculum for many years. Fungicide treatment is not efficient, and the only way to control this disease is to breed resistant cultivars. Genetic studies are difficult in M. sativa because it is tetraploid and outcrossing. A pathosystem has been set up in our laboratory in order to study the mechanisms involved in the interaction between V. alfalfae and its host. It involves the model legume plant M. truncatula and strain V31-2 of V. alfalfae. The lines A17 and F83005.5 were identified as respectively resistant and susceptible to V31-2. The first part of this thesis is a comparative study of the infection process of V. alfalfae V31-2 in a compatible and incompatible interaction. The time course of root colonization in lines A17 and F83005.5 was studied with a GFP-expressing strain which confers green fluorescence to the fungus. Observations by confocal microscopy showed that the fungus developed in a similar way in roots of both lines during the first stage of the interaction. Some days later the fungus was not detectable anymore in roots of the resistant line, but has colonized the xylem vessels and grew towards the aerial part of the plant in the susceptible line. Quantification of fungal DNA in roots and aerial parts confirmed these results. This showed that the resistant line A17 was able to suppress the pathogen’s development in the root. It can be concluded that line A17 presents total resistance towards V. alfalfae. The second part of the thesis concerns the role of phytohormones for defence mechanisms against V. alfalfae in M. truncatula. Susceptible and resistant plants were treated with salicylic acid (SA), methyl jasmonate (MeJA), ethylene (ET), auxine and abscissic acid (ABA). Resistance of line A17 was not affected by these treatments, but all hormones except MeJA protected the susceptible line against disease symptoms. However, when fungal DNA was quantified in planta in these assays, only ABA inhibited the pathogen’s development significantly. The third part of this thesis aims at identifying molecular factors involved in resistance and susceptibility. To address this topic, the transcriptome of lines A17 and F83005.5 was compared during the early stages of infection, in inoculated or mock-inoculated plants. A bioinformatics analysis of differentially expressed genes showed that both lines responded to inoculation by inducing genes involved in secondary metabolism and hormone signaling pathways. However, only resistant line A17 showed induction of the expression of putative resistance and signaling genes, genes involved in ABA synthesis and transcription factors. This result confirms our hypothesis that ABA might be an important factor in M. truncatula resistance against V. alfalfae. Gene network analysis of co-expressed genes showed a disorganised response in the susceptible line, whereas in the resistant line the response was highly organised and turned to defence. Taken together, this work describes for the first time defence mechanisms against V. alfalfae in M. truncatula. The results show that resistance of line A17 is different from resistance mechanisms Verticillium resistance described in tomato and cotton. Several approaches for future research are presented in order to test our hypotheses concerning genes and molecules putatively involved in this interaction. With regard to applied research, defence and signaling genes identified in this work may be useful for the improvement of alfalfa, after functional validation.

<p dir="ltr">Bacterial Wilt, caused by <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i>, is among the most devastating plant diseases in the world. This pathogen causes significant loss in crops such as tobacco, potato, and tomato. <i>R. solanacearum</i> root infection and xylem colonization determine disease outcome. To date, little is known about the defense mechanism mediated by roots to prevent <i>R. solanacearum</i> vascular colonization during the initial infection stages. Plant early responses are important since they may impact disease outcomes<i>.</i><i> </i>Here, we report the formation of root hairs and primary root growth inhibition in tomato seedlings as <i>Ralstonia</i>-induced phenotypes that depend on tomato genotype and <i>Ralstonia</i> species. The <i>Ralstonia</i>-induced root phenotypes are independent of a functional type III secretion system and exopolysaccharide production (EPS). We also found that <i>R. solanacearum</i><i> </i>K60 infection increased auxin levels throughout the root meristem in wilt-susceptible tomato roots. Our data suggest proper auxin signaling and transport are important for susceptibility to <i>R. solanacearum</i> K60. Blocking auxin transport pharmacologically or genetically led to fewer wilting symptoms, suggesting that auxin is important during early infection stages and disease outcomes in tomato. We previously found that a tomato mutant defective in auxin transport and signaling, known as <i>diageotropica</i> (<i>dgt</i>), has enhanced resistance to <i>R. solanacearum</i> K60. We characterized the resistant response in the <i>dgt</i> mutant, and we found that the resistant response in the <i>dgt</i> mutant may be due to increased lignin content preventing pathogen vasculature colonization. <i>DGT</i> encodes a cyclophilin protein that regulates auxin transport and signaling. Mutations in the cyclophilin DGT promote resistance to <i>R. solanacearum</i> K60. DGT has been reported to regulate auxin transport and signaling. However, the molecular mechanism regarding how DGT mediates these processes is still unknown. We used Yeast Two-Hybrid to identify candidate protein interactors, and we found that SlbZIP1/SlbZIP29, Sl14-3-3, and SlMYB110 may interact with DGT to regulate both development and defense responses. Understanding the role of DGT, auxin, and lignin in defense responses to <i>R. solanacearum</i> K60 in tomato is necessary for Solanaceae crop improvement.</p>

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