A microfiltração tangencial aplicada à clarificação de vinho branco tem se tornado uma importante alternativa aos processos convencionais de filtração na indústria vinícola, como a filtração por terras diatomáceas, trasfega e centrifugação. O uso de membranas cerâmicas tem despertado interesse para esta finalidade. Neste trabalho, diferentes membranas cerâmicas e compósitas tubulares, mono e multicanal, de diferentes tamanhos de poro, foram avaliadas quanto à sua morfologia e testes de permeabilidade hidráulica e do vinho branco, a fim de verificar a influência da estrutura destas no fluxo de vinho branco permeado, bem como, avaliar a presença de resíduos sólidos suspensos no vinho permeado decorrente de seu processo de clarificação. As membranas foram caracterizadas por difração de raios X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de varredura por emissão de campo (FESEM), espectroscopia de dispersão de energia (EDS), porosimetria por intrusão de mercúrio, testes de permeabilidade e retenção de proteínas. O tamanho médio de poro apresentado pelas membranas variou de 0,0056 a 5,0 µm. As membranas compósitas apresentaram ótima retenção proteica, 99%, para solutos com massa molar acima de 45 kDa. Membranas de α-alumina tratadas termicamente a 1450ºC e membranas compósitas de α-alumina/poliamida 66 demonstraram, em média, redução de 99,9% da turbidez inicial do vinho, sendo possível reduzir de 720 NTU para, em média, 0,30 NTU, com possibilidade de estabilização tartárica em sete dias e fluxos de permeado que variaram de 60,8 a 8,8 L.m-2.h-1, respectivamente, a 1,0 bar de pressão. Por outro lado, membranas de mulita e titânia não demonstraram eficiência para a clarificação, sendo que o vinho permeado pela membrana de mulita apresentou turbidez de 20 NTU e aumento do índice de polifenóis totais (IPT). Membranas compósitas permitiram a redução de 37% no valor de IPT do vinho branco. O baixo valor de turbidez obtido nos vinhos permeados pelas membranas de alumina e compósitas demonstra forte perspectiva da utilização destas membranas na clarificação do vinho branco. / The tangential microfiltration applied to the clarification of white wine has become an important alternative to conventional filtration processes in the wine industry, for example, the filtration diatomaceous earth, land transfer and centrifugation. The use of ceramic membranes has awakened interest for this purpose. In this work, different and tubular composite ceramic membranes, mono and multi-channel, of different sizes of pore, were evaluated for their morphology and hydraulic permeability tests and white wine, in order to verify the influence of the structure of these in white wine flow permeated as well, evaluate the presence of suspended solids in the waste wine due to its process of clarification. The membranes were characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy by field emission (FESEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), porosimetria by mercury intrusion tests, permeability and protein retention. The average pore size presented by membranes ranged from 0.0056 to 5.0 µm. Composite membranes showed great protein retention, 99%, for solutes with molecular weight up to 45 kDa. α-alumina membranes treated thermally to 1450ºC and composite membranes of α-alumina/polyamide 66 showed, on average, 99.9% reduction of wine’s turbidity, being possible to reduce from 720 NTU to average 0.30 NTU, with possibility of tartaric stabilization in seven days and permeate fluxes that ranged from 60.8 to 8.8 L. m-2h-1, respectively, the 1.0 bar pressure. On the other hand, mullite and titania membranes have not shown effectiveness for clarification, the wine permeated by the membrane of mullite presented turbidity of 20 NTU and increase the rate of total polyphenols (IPT). Composite membranes have enabled the reduction of 37% in the value of IPT of the white wine. The low turbidity value obtained in wine permeated by composite and alumina membranes, strong perspective of use demonstrates of these membranes in the clarification of white wine.

Orientador: Nilson Antonio Modesto Arraes / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agrícola / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T02:18:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Otani_MalimiriaNorico_M.pdf: 5713996 bytes, checksum: 8ec6cf1814ab9570a2bb1af6da700830 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Transformações recentes que envolvem a produção de uva e vinho em São Paulo vêm estimulando uma articulação dos produtores para formulação de políticas públicas que promovam a revitalização da vitivinicultura no estado. Um dos problemas identificados foi a falta de informações consolidadas, de onde decorre a necessidade de um diagnóstico sócioeconômico e produtivo do setor. Buscando preencher parte desta lacuna, esta pesquisa teve como principal objetivo traçar o perfil dos vitivinicultores artesanais de Jundiaí e definir uma tipologia, além de avaliar as perspectivas de sua continuidade como atividade importante para a reprodução social destes agricultores familiares. Por localizarem-se próximos às duas maiores metrópoles de São Paulo, os agricultores familiares de Jundiaí estão estabelecidos em área de forte transformação do setor rural, com múltiplas formas de ocupação, característica de conformações de espaço periurbano. Além da produção, a propriedade rural é também área de moradia, condição esta facilitada pela infra-estrutura disponível na região. A proximidade às metrópoles favorece a inserção ao mercado de trabalho regional e a comercialização dos produtos - agrícolas e não-agrícolas - elaborados pelos produtores. As gerações mais jovens, que têm acesso à escolaridade, mais informações e rede social mais extensa, além do grupo rural, tendem a se inserir em outros setores da economia, como o de serviços e a indústria. As gerações mais antigas, por sua vez, devido à forte ligação à terra e à tradição cultural, continuam na atividade agrícola e na elaboração do vinho. A produção do vinho artesanal assume vários significados para a família, sendo um deles, o de reproduzir uma tradição trazida pelos antepassados italianos, e outro, de complementar a renda familiar. Esta combinação, agregada à renda obtida em outros setores da economia fortalece a tradição cultural e a resistência para continuar na atividade vitivinícola, e consolida a estratégia de reprodução social do agricultor familiar inserido num espaço em transformação / Abstract: Recent changes concerning the Sao Paulo vitivinicultural sector is stimulating producers to articulate themselves in order to promote the construction of public policies for this activity in the state. One of the main bottlenecks observed was the lack of consolidated information, which shows the need for a productive and socio-economic diagnosis of the sector. This study aims to fill this gap by tracing a profile of both the artisanal wine producers of Jundiaí and the prospects for vitiviniculture as an important activity for the social reproduction of these family farmers. Placed close to the two largest metropolises of São Paulo, the family farmers of Jundiaí are established in areas under strong transformation of the rural sector, showing multiple ways of occupation, which is characteristic of periurban space configurations. Besides production, rural properties are also the place of residence, a condition which is favored by the local infrastructure available. The proximity to the metropolises makes easier the insertion in regional labor markets, as well as the commercialization of their agricultural and non-agricultural products. The younger generations, who access schools, information and more extended social networks out of the rural groups, tend to be inserted in other economic sectors, such as services and industries. The older generations, in turn, who are strongly linked to the land and cultural tradition, keep on growing grapes and making wine. The artisanal wine production shows several meanings to the family, being one of them the reproduction of the tradition brought by their Italian ancestors and complementation of the family income as well. This combination, added to the income obtained in other sectors of the economy, strengthens the cultural tradition and the resistance to continue on the vitiviniculture. This also consolidates the strategy of social reproduction of the family farmers placed on a space under transformation / Mestrado / Planejamento e Desenvolvimento Rural Sustentável / Mestre em Engenharia Agrícola

Orientadores: Helena Teixeira Godoy, Roger Wagner / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T09:21:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rodrigues_Daniele_D.pdf: 2460072 bytes, checksum: c95a5ef47b314914e0a09d0a616b0186 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: O aroma dos vinhos é formado por compostos provenientes das uvas e por compostos formados durante a vinificação, caracterizando a identidade, a tipicidade e a qualidade do vinho. A fermentação alcoólica é o processo de maior importância para a formação desses compostos. Porém, a falta de nutrientes nos mostos, como o nitrogênio, pode resultar em uma fermentação lenta, com a formação insuficiente da biomassa e, consequentemente, a baixa síntese de compostos de aroma. A qualidade de certos vinhos também pode ser prejudicada pela presença de compostos indesejáveis, os offflavours. Dentre esses compostos estão as metoxipirazinas que, em altas concentrações, são responsáveis pelo aroma herbáceo ou de pimentão verde em uvas Cabernet sauvignon, sendo incorporadas no vinho durante o processo de vinificação. Alguns parâmetros têm sido relacionados com as altas concentrações desses compostos, sendo o mais importante a maturação incompleta das uvas na época da colheita, que pode ser influenciada por fatores naturais como a umidade do ar, as precipitações pluviométricas e a temperatura. Diante do exposto, este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o intuito de suprir a falta de nitrogênio no mosto durante a vinificação e de diminuir a concentração de metoxipirazinas nas uvas e nos vinhos. Para isso, diferentes práticas de manejo foram aplicadas nos vinhedos. A pulverização de amônia no solo dos vinhedos das cultivares Merlot, Cabernet franc e Cabernet sauvignon, foi testada para a obtenção de nitrogênio necessário para a fermentação alcoólica e a produção dos compostos de aromas. Para isso, os vinhedos foram divididos em parcelas e receberam diferentes concentrações de amônia (10, 60, 90, 120 e 180 kgN.Hectare-1). Na época da vindima, as uvas foram colhidas e analisadas quanto aos teores de nitrogênio assimilável e de aminoácidos, sendo em seguida vinificadas, e os vinhos analisados quanto aos teores de álcoois superiores e de ésteres. A dupla poda e a cobertura do vinhedo foram realizadas com a cultivar Cabernet sauvignon e testadas para a diminuição de metoxipirazinas na uva e no vinho. Amostras de uvas foram colhidas durante todo o período de maturação, com o intuito de acompanhar as concentrações de metoxipirazinas. Na época da vindima, as uvas foram colhidas e analisadas quanto aos seus teores de metoxipirazinas, sólidos solúveis totais e pH, sendo em seguida vinificadas, e os vinhos analisados quanto aos seus teores de metoxipirazinas. Os resultados mostraram que todas as técnicas de manejo aplicadas nos vinhedos foram eficientes e conseguiram atingir seus objetivos. Com relação à pulverização de amônia, os tratamentos que receberam maiores concentrações desse composto no solo apresentaram concentrações mais elevadas de nitrogênio assimilável (167,163 e 184 mg.L-1) e de aminoácidos (752, 921 e 998 mg.L-1) nos mostos, se comparados com os tratamentos controles (128,103 e 115 mg.L-1 para nitrogênio assimilável e 534, 542 e 601 mg.L-1 para aminoácidos), indicando que as plantas foram capazes de absorver esse composto do solo e utilizá-lo na produção de aminoácidos. A presença de elevadas concentrações de nitrogênio assimilável e de aminoácidos nos mostos influenciou e acelerou a fermentação alcoólica das varietais Merlot e Cabernet sauvignon, cujos tratamentos que apresentaram as maiores concentrações de nitrogênio assimilável tiveram seu tempo de fermentação reduzido de 9 para 7 dias. Adicionalmente, os vinhos elaborados com as uvas oriundas desses mesmos tratamentos apresentaram as maiores concentrações de álcoois superiores (190, 443 e 356 mg.L-1) e de ésteres (6505, 6440 e 6298 ]g.L-1), indicando que a síntese desses compostos foi beneficiada pela presença das altas concentrações de nitrogênio assimilável e de aminoácidos. Sendo assim, conclui-se que a pulverização de amônia no solo foi satisfatória, pois forneceu nitrogênio suficiente para o desenvolvimento da fermentação alcoólica e para a produção de compostos aromáticos. Com relação às metoxipirazinas, os resultados mostraram que elas sofreram degradação ao longo do período de maturação, com valores para a concentração de IBMP (2-metoxi-3-isobutilmetoxipirazina) iniciando em 46 ng.L-1 e finalizando abaixo 2,5 ng.L-1. A cobertura do vinhedo foi a técnica mais eficiente na redução de metoxipirazinas em safras colhidas no verão, apresentando uvas com concentração final máxima para a IBMP de 5,27 ng.L-1, sugerindo que a alta temperatura abaixo da cobertura favoreceu a degradação desses compostos. Porém, a dupla poda inverteu a época da colheita do verão para o inverno,época mais fria e de menor intensidade pluviométrica, contribuindo para o aumento do tempo para as bagas atingirem a maturação ideal e, indiretamente, favorecendo a degradação das metoxipirazinas durante este tempo, chegando a valores finais de concentração inferiores a 2,5 ng.L-1, tornando assim a dupla poda o tratamento mais eficaz para a redução das metoxipirazinas nas uvas e, consequentemente, no vinho / Abstract: The aroma of the wine is made by compounds from grapes and compounds formed during the vinification, featuring the identity, typicality and quality of wine. Alcoholic fermentation is the process of greater importance for the formation of these compounds. However, the lack of nutrients in musts, such as nitrogen, can result in a slow fermentation, with the formation of biomass insufficient and the lower synthesis of aromatic compounds. The quality of certain wines may also be impaired by the presence of undesirable compounds, the off-flavours. Among these compounds are the methoxypyrazines that, in high concentrations, are responsible for the flavor herbaceous or green peppers in grapes Cabernet Sauvignon, being incorporated into the wine during the winemaking process. Some parameters have been related to high concentrations of these compounds, the most important is the unripe grapes at harvest time, which can be influenced by natural factors such as humidity, rainfalls and temperature. Given the above, this work has been developed in order to address the lack of nitrogen in musts during vinification and decrease the concentration of methoxypyrazines in grapes and wines. For this, different management practices were applied in the vineyards. Spraying ammonia into the soil vineyards of Merlot, Cabernet franc and Cabernet Sauvignon was tested to obtain nitrogen necessary for the fermentation and production of flavor compounds. For this, the vineyards were divided into plots and received different concentrations of ammonia (10, 60, 90, 120 and 180 kgN.Hectare-1). At the time of harvest, the grapes were harvested and analyzed for the levels of assimilable nitrogen and amino acids, after they were vinified and the wines were analyzed for the levels of higher alcohols and esters. The double pruning and coverage vineyard were conducted with the cultivar Cabernet Sauvignon and tested to decrease methoxypyrazines in grapes and wine. Samples were harvested during all the maturing period in order to monitor the concentrations of methoxypyrazines. At the time of harvest, the grapes were harvested and analyzed for their content of methoxypyrazines, soluble solids and pH, after they were vinified and the wines were analyzed for their content of methoxypyrazines. The results showed that all the management techniques applied in vineyards were efficient and to achieve their objectives. Regarding the addition of ammonia, the treatments that received higher concentrations of this compound in the soil showed higher concentrations of assimilable nitrogen (167, 163 and 184 mg.L-1) and amino acids (752, 921 and 998 mg L-1) in must, when compared to control treatments (128, 103 and 115 mg.L-1 for assimilable nitrogen and 534, 542 and 601 mg.L-1 for amino acids), indicating that the plants were able to absorb the compound of the soil and use it for the amino acid production. The presence of high concentrations of assimilable nitrogen and amino acids in musts influenced and accelerated the alcoholic fermentation of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon, the treatments that presented the highest concentrations of assimilable nitrogen had their fermentation time reduced from 9 to 7 days. Additionally, the wines produced with grapes coming from these same treatments had higher concentrations of higher alcohols (190, 443 and 356 mg L-1) and ester (6505, 6440 and 6298 ]g.L-1), indicating that the synthesis of these compounds was benefited by the presence of high concentrations of assimilable nitrogen and amino acids. Therefore, it is concluded that the addition of ammonia in the soil was satisfactory, because it supplied sufficient nitrogen to the development of alcoholic fermentation and the production of aromatic compounds. With respect to methoxypyrazines, the results showed that they undergo degradation during the maturation period, with values for the concentration of IBMP (2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine) starting at 46 ng.L-1 and ending below 2,5 ng.L-1. The coverage vineyard technique was more effective in reducing methoxypyrazines in crops harvested in summer, with grapes with a maximum final concentration of IBMP of 5,27 ng.L-1, suggesting that high temperature below de coverage favored the degradation of these compounds. However, double pruning reversed the harvest season from summer to winter, coldest and least rainfall intensity, contributing to the increase in time for the berries reach optimum ripeness and, indirectly favoring the degradation of methoxypyrazines during this time, reaching a final concentration values below 2,5 ng.L-1, thus making the double pruning the most effective treatment for reducing methoxypyrazines in grapes and wines / Doutorado / Ciência de Alimentos / Doutora em Ciência de Alimentos

Preventing the environmental impacts of economic growth is an important goal in today’s marketplace. This concern for a sustainable future incentivises marketing based around sustainability. The food and beverage industry had its fair share of criticism as its production uses more natural resources than most industries. One industry that has been ahead of other food processors in adopting environmental practices is the wine industry. The close relationship between wine and places is undisputable and so strong that people frequently visit places of wine production in the form of wine tourism contributing significantly to regional economies. For wine to be associated with sustainability, regional stakeholders would be required to represent similar values. The branding of places is far more intricate than branding of products and needs the support of those stakeholders involved. Such support is often discussed as a shared place identity. Only limited previous research has addressed whether the communication of sustainability enhances business performance. No research to date has empirically tested whether a shared stakeholder identity influences the relationship between sustainability branding and business success. To close this gap, a sequential mixed methods procedure was specified using quantitative questionnaires with 420 subjects and 20 qualitative interviews. A model with consequences of sustainability branding and a shared place identity was established using extant research. Mostly existing scales were adapted to fit this research context and tested with a structural modelling approach among Australian and German wineries. It was found that practicing and communicating sustainability significantly influences performance on an individual winery and regional destination level. Furthermore, a shared place identity has been established as a critical success factor in the relationship between sustainability branding and place performance. Both theoretical and practical implications can be drawn from this research. The results have provided empirical evidence on the direct relationship between sustainability and performance, in addition to the moderating role of a shared place identity. These findings extend the tourism literature which states that businesses practicing sustainably, enhance their own performance as well as the overall regional performance. It also extends stakeholder theory by establishing that a shared place identity strengthens this relationship even further, highlighting the need for regional management to initiate a shared sense of identification. Practically, regional managers who are eager to enhance economic performance should be actively involved in developing relationships between the individual wineries and the regional management in order to foster a shared place identity. Furthermore, it is of major importance to establish positive attitudes toward sustainability among winery owners. This can be done by building the confidence of winery owners by offering infrastructures for learning and support about sustainability.

M.Sc. / The 11B/10B stable isotope ratio in wine- and provenance soil samples of four South African wine regions was determined by means of quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The data obtained was combined with multi-element results for the same samples. Discriminant analysis and ANOVA statistics were utilized to create a footprint of wines compared to their provenance soil. The results showed that the stable boron isotope ratio was a distinguishable characteristic in wine and soil samples for the Stellenbosch, Robertson, Swartland, and Walker Bay wine regions. The potential improvement of precision and accuracy was investigated specifically for ICP-QMS (quadrupole mass spectrometry) analysis of boron isotope ratios. Sample preparation methods for the matrices used in this work were developed and applied. The influence of the matrix components was investigated. Ion exchange separation procedures were developed for the separation of total B from the wine and soil matrices. Results were treated mathematically to minimize mass bias effects. It was found that combined matrix effects and TDS (total dissolved solids) deposition did have a pronounced effect on the 11B/10B isotope ratios of the samples. The possibility of boron isotope fractionation was investigated in vine plants. Hydroponic experiments were set up with test plants of two cultivars. A 10B enriched nutrient solution or growth solution with natural 11B/10B ratio was supplied to the plants during alternating periods of 5 weeks each. New growth leaves were harvested once every week during each of these time periods. All samples were carefully prepared and analyzed to determine the relationship of the 11B/10B ratio in the leaves compared to that of the supplied nutrient solution. It was observed that the 11B/10B isotope ratio of the growth solution had an influence on the 11B/10B stable isotope ratio in new growth leaves of vine plants.

M.Sc. / The strontium isotope ratio 87Sr/86Sr in the wine and soil of four wine-producing regions in South Africa has been determined using quadrupole ICP-MS. Isotope ratio measurements with fairly good precision had been obtained and 87Sr/86Sr ratio values in wine and soil samples were statistically evaluated to determine whether the regions investigated could be distinguished. Statistical interpretation of data revealed that the Robertson wine-producing region could be distinguished from Stellenbosch, Swartland and Walker Bay wine regions on the basis of their 87Sr/86Sr ratio. By using a combination of 87Sr/86Sr and multielement data, canonical discriminant functions with very good classification abilities could be obtained to correctly distinguish between wine and soil samples originating from a specific production region. Due to the isobaric overlap of strontium and rubidium at mass 87, a very good strontium-rubidium separation method had to be developed. The chelating properties of EDTA and DCTA in combination with ion exchange chromatography were explored in order to achieve such a separation. Due to the advanced rubidium separation ability of the developed DCTA elution method, it has been employed in all wine and soil sample preparations. Since chromatographic ion exchange procedures are not capable of removing all the rubidium from the sample matrices, 87Sr/86Sr ratio values were mathematically corrected for residual rubidium using an 88Sr correction. Since strontium isotope ratio measurements require very good precision, it is traditionally determined using TIMS. However, due to the ease of operation, shorter analysis time and widespread availability of quadrupole ICP-MS, the technique was evaluated for its merit for determining strontium isotope ratios. The optimization of acquisition parameters for the determination of the 87Sr/86Sr ratio in wine and soil samples with good precision of below 0.1% RSD has been conducted. Furthermore, selected sample matrix components were assessed as possible matrix interferences as well as for their ability to affect the precision of measurements. It was concluded that with adequate optimization of acquisition parameters, proper sample preparation and reliable mathematical correction of data, 87Sr/86Sr ratio measurements with reasonable precision could be obtained using quadrupole ICP-MS.

M.Sc. / The South African wine industry is well respected internationally for producing high quality wines. The possible adulteration of these wines can lead to loss of reputation and a loss of sales and could also be dangerous to consumer’s health. Multi-element analysis of wines is one way of implementing quality control and the same multi-element data can also be used to prove the point of origin. The metal content of the fruit (grapes) should represent the metal content of the soil in which the plants (vineyards) were grown. An Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) was used with correct internal standard and interference correction to obtain reliable concentrations for 27 elements (Li, B, Al, Sc, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Mo, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, Ce, Nd, W, Tl, Pb and U) of 1:1 diluted wines and microwave digested vineyard soil from four South-African wine-producing regions: Stellenbosch, Swartland, Robertson and Walker Bay. This multi-element data was then interpreted using multivariate statistical analysis in order to determine which elements have the ability to discriminate between the four regions. Li, B, Sc, Ni, Mn, Co, Cu, and Rb were the elements that were identified to have discrimination ability. 96% of wines and 100% of vineyard soils were correctly classified. Indirectly it has been proven that the metal content of the soil can be correlated to the metal content of the wine. This methodology can be reliably used in industry for quality control and routine provenance determination

In this study white-rot fungi were investigated for their efficiency at distillery wastewater remediation and the production of laccase as a valuable by-product. Distillery wastewaters are high in organic load and low in pH. The presence of phenolic compounds can lead to extremely colour-rich wastewaters and can be toxic to microorganisms. The presence of the inorganic ions may also affect biological treatment. White-rot fungi are unique among eukaryotic or prokaryotic microbes in possessing powerful oxidative enzyme systems that can degrade lignin to carbon dioxide. These ligninolytic enzymes, such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase and laccase, are capable of degrading a vast range of toxic, recalcitrant environmental pollutants and this makes the white-rot fungi strong candidates for the bioremediation of polluted soils and waters. The laccase enzyme alone has shown remediation potential in wastewaters such as beer production effluent, olive mill wastewater, alcohol distillery wastes, dye-containing wastewaters from the textile industry as well as wastewaters from the paper and pulp industry. It has been shown to be capable of remediating soils and waters polluted with chlorinated phenolic compounds, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, nitrosubstituted compounds and fungicides, herbicides and insecticides.

Experiences in treating wine distillery wastewaters (WDWs) contribute to the field of oenology as many oenologists are concerned with the selection, efficiency and economy of their wastewaters. Wine distillery wastewaters are strongly acidic, have high chemical oxygen demand (COD), high polyphenol content and are highly variable. Primary attention was focussed on sustainable biological treatment of raw wine distillery wastewater (RWDW) and fungally pre-treated wine distillery wastewater (FTWDW) by energy-efficient high rate anaerobic digestion (AD). This study also explored the development of a novel dual-stage anaerobic digestion ultrafiltration (ADUF) process, using a ceramic submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) in the treatment of both RWDW and FTWDW. The first stage was for the selection of microorganisms that were able to treat the toxic pollutants from WDWs. It was operated at a high feed-to-microorganism ratio. The second stage, a secondary digester, was operated like a typical membrane bioreactor at a low feed-to-microorganism ratio to sustain a stable efficient population for a long period. The characteristics of RWDW were as follows: pH 3.83, 15 000 mg/l soluble COD (CODs) and 5229 mg/l of phenols. After pre-treatment of RWDW with Trametes pubescens, starting parameters for FTWDW were as follows: pH 6.7, 7000 mg/l soluble COD (CODS) and 1440 mg/l of phenols. During operation of a high rate anaerobic digester for RWDW treatment, K2HPO4 was required for buffering the digester. Volatile fatty acid concentrations were <300 mg/l throughout the study, indicating degradation of organic acids present. Mean CODS removal efficiency for the 130 day study was 87 %, while the mean polyphenol removal efficiency was 85 %. Addition of 50 mg/l Fe3+ increased the removal efficiencies of CODS to 97 % and of polyphenols to 99 %. High removal efficiencies of CODS and polyphenols were attributed to the addition of macronutrients and micronutrients that caused pH stability and stimulated microbial activity. The CODS removal efficiency of high rate anaerobic digestion of FTWDW reached 99.5%. During FTWDW digestion, pH buffering was achieved using K2HPO4. A combination of a SMBR and a secondary digester was tested for the treatment of RWDW and FTWDW during a 30 day study. Results for RWDW showed that pH buffering was achieved by dosing the feed stream with CaCO3 and K2HPO4. Buffering proved to be significant for optimum performance of the system in removal of soluble CODS, and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Different batches of RWDW used for feeding the reactor had variable compositions with respect to concentrations of nitrates, ammonium and total phenolic compounds. Ammonium accumulated in the secondary digester after 14 days of system operation, indicated the time required for the establishment of anaerobic conditions in the system. Dosing of the SMBR treating FTWDW with CaCO3 and K2HPO4 buffered the pH; iii this proved significant for optimum performance of the system in removal of CODS. The system eliminated an average of 86 (± 4) % of CODS present in the FTWDW. The residual CODS levels in the effluent were approximately 400 mg/l, significantly lower than the concentrations observed when treating RWDW, indicating that fungal pre-treatment might have provided additional nutrients for removal of recalcitrant components of the wastewater. The resulting effluent was rich in nitrates and phosphates and might be used as a fertiliser. Alternatively, a membrane process, such as reverse osmosis (RO) or nanofiltration (NF) could be applied to raise the water quality to meet the levels required for reuse. Biomass samples were obtained from the four treatment systems and population shifts characterization using phospholipids fatty acids (PLFA) and 16S rRNA analysis to provide an indication of limitations within the microbial population. The values of the concentrations of the individual PLFAs detected in the samples indicated that ten bacterial species were present, with the GC content of the 16S rRNA increasing from 1 to 10. Analysis of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis DGGE data indicated that the composition of the archeal community changed the consortia used for both RWDW and FTWDW treatment. Changes in band intensities indicated the presence of different components of the archeal communities. The results were not conclusive in terms of species identity as cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analyses were not performed, but they did indicate microbial population shifts and species diversity for high rate anaerobic digestion. The results also confirmed prevalence of relatively few species during operation of SMBRs for treatment of RWDW and FTWDW, which suggested that the microorganisms that survived were either tolerant of toxic components of RWDW and FTWDW or they were able to remove polyphenols.

In South Africa, wastewater disposal in the wine and distilling industry is undergoing a profound transformation as a result of fundamental changes in regulations and license requirements. To deal with this problem conventional Waste Stabilisation Ponding systems have been used by the industry together with irrigation and evaporation disposal practises. Although effective in the evaporation and containment disposal functions, these pond systems are generally not properly designed and/or managed, resulting in overloading and, at times, the generation of seriously offensive odour problems. Preliminary studies on the feasibility of utilising the Advanced Integrated Wastewater Ponding System as a core treatment technology in winery wastewater treatment were conducted. Results indicated that specific problems had to be addressed before successful ponding treatment could be achieved. This research programme undertook an investigation of the performance of a demonstration ponding system treating household sewage, which formed the basis of the research due to limited experience reported on ponds treating wine industry wastewaters. Malfunctions identified were in correlation with the preliminary winery waste ponding survey, which included unstable fermentation pit functions and inadequate nutrient removal. Retrofitting the fermentation pit with a nylon net across the rising water column resulted in improved retention of active anaerobic sludge, especially during periods of system start-up and/or organic overloading. An investigation into nutrient removal utilising algal biomass provided a valuable contribution towards development of an independent nutrient removal system. Harvested algal biomass was passively manipulated to release polysaccharides under anoxic conditions, with subsequent use as a carbon source by denitrifying organisms. Following denitrification, the still viable algal cells were introduced into a High Rate Algal Pond raceway for photosynthetically produced alkalinity. This high pH environment resulted in induced calcium phosphate mineral formation and subsequent precipitation, as well as effective ammonia stripping from the water. Based on the novel positive research outcomes a decision was made to proceed to the construction of a pilot-scale integrated ponding system treating wastewater from a wine lees factory. The system linked the Anaerobic Baffle Reactor, for pre-treatment, with the improved Advanced Integrated Wastewater Ponding System. The potential of this system has shown that a Waste Stabilisation Ponding system can be engineered to treat wine industry wastewaters and thereby effectively reduce the organic and nutrient loads, by using low-cost retrofitted upgrading unit operations. Valuable algal biomass may also be recovered as a by-product of the treatment process.