Les enrobés bitumineux ont été utilisés habituellement dans des constructions routières et récemment sous les ballasts des ferroviaires. Sa grande rigidité aux températures relativement basses de l’ambiance et à haute fréquence explique son application répandue en Europe du nord. Ce matériau a été étudié au niveau global par à la fois des essais empiriques, expérimentaux et des approches analytiques. Pourtant, l’enrobé bitumineux possède un structure interne hétérogène et complexe qui peut-être engendrer des comportements complexe. Les analyses au niveau local permettent alors de compléter les connaissances de ses comportements.De nos jours, la méthode des éléments discrets est connue comme un outil numérique répandu dans le domaine granulaire. Elle peut modéliser son comportement à travers des modèles locaux et fournir des informations de sa structure interne. Une part, cette méthode considère que les particules sont quasi-solides. Son déplacement est régi par les lois de mouvement. L’autre part, le chevauchement au niveau de contact entre particules est admis. L’interpénétration des particules est calculée par les lois de contact locaux associées. Cette thèse constitue une maquette numérique des enrobés bitumineux dont les particules isolées s’interagissent à travers des lois d’interaction à distance. Cette maquette prend en compte la granulométrie des granulats (>1mm) et son rapport volumique vis-à-vis du mastic constitué par des grains (<1mm), le liant et des vides. Les granulats (>1mm) seuls sont modélisés par des particules numériques, tandis que du mastic est pris en compte par des lois d’interaction. Au premier lieu, une simulation élastique est réalisée afin de reproduire des comportements asymptotiques élastiques d’un enrobé bitumineux de référence de type GB3 qui apparaissent lors des conditions extrêmes (fréquence ou température). Des lois d’interaction élastiques ont appliqué à la maquette numérique créée. Sur deux directions normale et tangentielles, les raideurs du ressort et leur rapport sont constantes.Ensuite, les simulations viscoélastiques sont réalisées pour reproduire le comportement viscoélastique du même matériau de référence. Au premier temps, une loi d’interaction de type Kelvin-Voigt est utilisée pour mettre en évidence qualitativement l’application d’une loi viscoélastique. Ensuite, le comportement viscoélastique globale est modélisé à niveau des particules par quelques lois d’interaction de type 1KV1R (un Kelvin-Voigt et un ressort en série) repartant au réseau d’interaction de la maquette numérique. Les raideurs des ressorts prenant en compte la géométrie de l’interface de particules sont constantes pour toutes les modèle de 1KV1R. Cependant, des viscosités des amortisseurs sont différentes. Certaines hypothèses sont examinées pour distribuer ses viscosités dans le réseau d’interaction. A la fin des études, les analyses des efforts internes sont réalisées. / Bituminous mixtures have traditionally been used in road constructions and recently under railway ballast. Its high rigidity at relatively low ambient temperatures and high frequency explains its widespread application in northern Europe. This material has been studied at the global level by both empirical, experimental and analytical approaches. However, the asphalt has a heterogeneous internal structure and complex which may cause complex behavior. The analysis at the local level then make it possible to supplement the knowledge of its behaviors.Nowadays, the method of discrete elements is known as a numerical tool spread in the granular field. It can model its behavior through local models and provide information about its internal structure. On the one hand, this method considers that the particles are quasi-solid. Its displacement is governed by the laws of motion. On the other hand, the overlap at the particle contact level is allowed. The interpenetration of the particles is calculated by the associated local contact laws. This thesis constitutes a numerical model of bituminous mixes whose isolated particles interact through laws of interaction at a distance. This model takes into account the granulometry of the aggregates (> 1 mm) and its volume ratio with respect to the mastic constituted by grains (<1 mm), the binder and voids. The aggregates (> 1 mm) alone are modeled by numerical particles, while mastic is taken into account by laws of interaction.First, an elastic simulation is performed in order to reproduce the elastic asymptotic behaviors of a reference bituminous mix of GB3 type that appear during extreme conditions (frequency or temperature). Elastic interaction laws have applied to the created numerical model. In both normal and tangential directions, the stiffness of the spring and its ratio are constant.Then, the viscoelastic simulations are performed to reproduce the viscoelastic behavior of the same reference material. At first, a Kelvin-Voigt interaction law is used to qualitatively highlight the application of a viscoelastic law. Then, the global viscoelastic behavior is modeled at the level of the particles by some laws of interaction of type 1KV1R (a Kelvin-Voigt and a spring in series) leaving again to the network of interaction of the numerical model. The stiffness of the springs taking into account the geometry of the particle interface is constant for all models of 1KV1R. However, the viscosities of the dashpots are different. Some hypotheses are examined to distribute its viscosities in the interaction network. At the end of the studies, the analysis of the internal efforts are carried out.

Des mousses de polymères modèles sont élaborées à partir d’émulsions afin d’en étudier les propriétés. De telles mousses sont intéressantes dans des applications variées d’amortisseurs (sécurité passive), de filtres ou d’isolation. Les objectifs de cette étude sont de comprendre l’origine des propriétés mécaniques des mousses et d’identifier les paramètres structuraux les plus pertinents. Pour cela, la première étape consiste en la fabrication de mousses de morphologies contrôlées à partir d’émulsions monodisperses très concentrées. Par polymérisation de la phase continue des émulsions, des mousses solides modèles à taille de cellules contrôlées et de porosité ouverte sont obtenues. Ensuite la structure de ces matériaux poreux est analysée et comparée à celle des émulsions initiales. Enfin, ces mousses sont caractérisées mécaniquement en compression. Nous présentons les résultats obtenus en variant de manière contrôlée la taille des pores et leur fraction volumique et les confrontons aux modèles existants. / Polymer foams are cellular materials commonly used for safety applications in many industrial sectors (aeronautic, passive safety, gears…). To even improve their performances, the link between their structural parameters (cell sizes, density...) and their mechanical behaviour should be better understood and modelled. A way of producing such foams is to polymerize the continuous phase of highly concentrated emulsions. The advantage of such an emulsion-based strategy is that it becomes possible to take advantage of the good control over emulsion parameters (drop size, dispersed phase volume fraction, continuous phase composition) to elaborate model foams with cells and pores having narrow size distributions. The production of model foams makes it possible to determine independently the influence of each parameter on the compression modulus and to compare the results with existing models.

X-ray detector windows must be thin enough to transmit sufficient low-energy x-rays, yet strong enough to withstand up to an atmosphere of differential pressure. Traditional low-energy x-ray windows consist of a support layer and pressure membrane spanning that support. Numerical modeling of several x-ray windows was used to show that both low- and high-energy x-ray transmission can be improved by adding a secondary support structure. Finite element analysis of the x-ray window models showed that the stress from a typical applied load does not exceed the ultimate strength or yield strength of the respective materials. The specific x-ray window models developed in this work may serve as a foundation for improving commercial windows, especially those geared toward low-energy transmission. For local mechanical film testing, microcantilevers were cut in suspended many-layer graphene using a focused ion beam. Multipoint force-deflection mapping with an atomic force microscope was used to record the compliance of the cantilevers. These data were used to estimate the elastic modulus of the film by fitting the compliance at multiple locations along the cantilever to a fixed-free Euler-Bernoulli beam model. This method resulted in a lower uncertainty than is possible from analyzing only a single force-deflection. The breaking strength of the film was also found by deflecting cantilevers until fracture. The average modulus and strength of the many-layer graphene films are 300 GPa and 12 GPa, respectively. The multipoint force-deflection method is well suited to analyze films that are heterogeneous in thickness or wrinkled. Bioimpedance can be measured by applying a known current to the tissue through two (current carrying) electrodes and recording the resulting voltage on two different (pickup) electrodes. Bioimpedance has been used to detect heart rate, respiration rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose. A wrist-based wearable bioimpedance device can measure heart rate by detecting the minute impedance changes caused by the modulation of blood volume in the radial artery. Using finite element analysis, I modeled how electrode position affects sensitivity to pulsatile changes. The highest sensitivity was found to occur when the pickup electrodes were centered over the artery. In this work, we used microfabricated carbon infiltrated-carbon nanotube electrodes to measure the change in contact bioimpedance for dry electrodes, and identical electrodes with a wet electrolyte, on five human subjects in the range of 1 kHz to 100 kHz. We found that the acclimated skin-electrode impedance of the dry electrodes approached that of the wet electrodes, especially for electrodes with larger areas. We also found that the acclimation time does not appear to depend on electrode area or frequency. The skin-electrode impedance after acclimation does depend on electrode area and frequency, decreasing with both. This work shows that if care is taken during the acclimation period, then dry carbon composite electrodes can be used in bioimpedance wearable applications.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) are emerging as a potential breakthrough energy conversion technology for clean and efficient production of electricity and heat from hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels. Sc0.1Ce0.01ZrO2 electrolytes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are very promising materials because their high ionic conductivity in the intermediate temperature range 700°C-800°C. The vibration response of cubic and rhombohedral (β) 10 mol%Sc2O3 - 1 mol%CeO2 - ZrO2(Sc0.1Ce0.01ZrO2 ) both at room and high-temperatures is reported. The in-situ heating experiments and ex-situ indentation experiments were performed to characterize the vibrational behavior of these important materials. A temperature and stress-assisted phase transition from cubic to rhombohedral phase was detected during in-situ Raman spectroscopy experiments. While heating and indentation experiments performed separately did not cause the transition of the cubic phase into the rhombohedral structure under the performed experimental conditions and only broadened or strained peaks of the cubic phase could be detected, the heating of the indented (strained) surface leaded to the formation of the rhombohedral Sc0.1Ce0.01ZrO2. Both temperature range and strained zone were estimated by in situ heating and 2D mapping, where a formation of rhombohedral or retention of cubic phase has been promoted. The mechanical properties, such as Young’s modulus, Vickers hardness, indentation fracture resistance, room and high temperature four point bending strength and SEVNB fracture toughness along with the stress – strain deformation behavior in compression, of 10 mol% Sc2O3 – 1 mol % CeO2 - ZrO2 (ScCeZrO2) ceramics have been studied. The chosen composition of the ScCeZrO2 has very high ionic conductivity and, therefore, is very promising oxygen ion conducting electrolyte for the intermediate temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells. Therefore, its mechanical behavior is of importance and is presented in this study.

The effects of metastable tetragonal zirconia on the properties of Ordinary Portland Cement were observed during which the effect of crystallite size pH on the preparation solution, precursor salt, and the presence of co-precipitates, Fe(OH)3, SnO2 and SiO2 on the crystallization temperature, enthalpy and crystal structure, immediately following the crystallization exothermic burst phenomenon in ZrO2 were measured. Thermal analysis and x-ray methods were used to determine crystallite sizes and structures immediately following the exothermic burst. Comparisons were made for zirconias prepared from oxychloride, chloride and nitrate solutions. The existence of tetrameric hydroxidecontaining ions in oxychloride precursor is used to rationalise low values of crystallization enthalpy. The position of the crystallization temperature, Tmax was not dependent on crystallite size alone but also on the pH at which the gel was made, the surface pH after washing, and the presence of diluent oxides. Enthalpy v r1/2 and Tmax v (diluent vol)1/3 relationships indicate that surface coverage effects dominate a surface nucleated phenomenon. The data established for ZrO2 systems was used to develop tetragonal-ZrO2-SnO2 powders capable of improving the mechanical properties of Ordinary Portland Cement discs. The ZrO2-OPC discs were prepared by powder mixing, water hydration and uniaxial pressing. Vicat needle tests showed that tetragonal-ZrO2 increases the initial setting rate. Microscopy indicated that porosity distribution changes near to ZrO2 particles. Zirconia has also been introduced into OPC discs by vacuum infiltration methods developed for solutions and colloidal suspensions. Comparisons between OPC discs and the OPCtetragonal ZrO2 composites have been made on the basis of diametral compression strength, Young’s modulus, hardness and toughness (K1c), as estimated by the cracked indentation method. Bell-shaped curves are found for the way the mechanical properties are changed as a function of Zirconia content.

Ossos trabeculares possuem uma microestrutura porosa e podem ser modelados como um sólido elástico linear, heterogêneo e anisotrópico. A microtomografia tridimensional por raios-x (&#956CT) tem sido mundialmente utilizada para a caracterização de osso trabecular em pesquisas relacionadas à qualidade óssea e a doenças do metabolismo ósseo como a osteoporose. Na literatura existem poucas investigações sobre a influência de diferentes subvolumes amostrais na caracterização de propriedades mecânicas de osso trabecular humano através de &#956CT e ensaio mecânico computacional pelo método de Elementos Finitos. Nesta investigação doze vértebras humanas da região lombar foram utilizadas para a caracterização das propriedades mecânicas do osso trabecular através de &#956CT e modelagem computacional por elementos finitos. Uma amostra cúbica virtual com 18,5 mm de lado foi extraída de cada vértebra e quatro cubos menores centrais foram obtidos a partir dela com reduções de 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% do volume original de cada cubo. A abordagem Direct Mechanics por meio de análise de elementos finitos foi realizada através do Software FAIM (v6.0, Numerics88 Solutions Ltd). Os valores médios nas três direções principais de carregamento para os módulos de Young, Poisson e Torção obtidos foram, respectivamente, E1 = 294 MPa , E2 = 258 MPa , E3 = 153 MPa, G23 = 86 MPa, G31 = 103 MPa, G12 = 100 MPa, v21 = 0,121, v31 = 0,076, v12 = 0,137, v32 = 0,077, v13 = 0,141 e v23 = 0,140. O teste estatístico de Kruskal - Wallis ANOVA fator único foi aplicado com os procedimentos de comparação aos pares (teste de Tukey) mostrou que E1 &#8800 E3, E2 &#8800 E3 e E1 = E2. Isso indica que há a tendência para duas direções diferentes de carregamento mecânico nas amostras de osso trabecular das vértebras humanas analisadas, caracterizando uma simetria transversalmente isotrópica. Entretanto, os autovalores da matriz M (tensor anisotropia) expressaram uma tendência da microestrutura trabecular das vértebras humanas para a simetria ortotrópica, mostrando que a análise do fabric não classifica adequadamente a simetria da estrutura. A avaliação dos parâmetros microestruturais mostrou a tendência de um aumento do grau de conectividade das trabéculas a medida que ocorre uma redução dos subvolumes analisados (100% para 20% ou em milímetros de 18,5 para 3,7) acompanhado de um acréscimo dos valores da fração de volume ósseo. Esta tendência reforça a ideia de analisar-se as possíveis variações dos parâmetros morfométricos e mecânicos em domínios específicos. Em outras palavras, uma avaliação local com a escolha de volumes menores dos parâmetros microestruturais fração de volume, conectividade, espessura trabecular, separação trabecular, número trabecular e parâmetros mecânicos (Módulos de Young, Poisson e Torção) podem melhorar o prognóstico da resistência óssea, a qual prediz o risco de fratura de estruturas de osso esponjoso com precisão. Quando as propriedades mecânicas estão associadas com informações microestruturais por &#956CT são gerados mais parâmetros para se avaliar a qualidade óssea no diagnóstico de doenças do metabolismo ósseo. Portanto, a microtomografia de raios-X e análise de elementos finitos oferecem uma técnica não-invasiva com grande potencial para a avaliação da qualidade óssea. / Trabecular bone structures have a porous microstructure and can be modeled as linear elastic solid with a heterogeneous and anisotropic structure. The X-ray microtomography (&#956CT) has been used worldwide for the characterization of trabecular bone and its relationship with bone quality in metabolism diseases such as osteoporosis. In the literature there are few investigations regarding the influence of trabecular samples subvolumes in the assessment of microstructure and mechanical properties using &#956CT and finite element analysis. In this investigation twelve human vertebraes were used for the characterization of mechanical properties of trabecular bone using CT and computational modeling by finite elements. A cube sample with 18.5 mm sides was computationally extracted from each vertebrae and four smaller central cubes were obtained from it, with a 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% reduction from the original volume. The Direct Mechanics approach by finite element analysis was performed through the FAIM Software (v6.0, Numerics88 Solutions Ltd.). The mean values on three main directions of loading for Youngs Modulus, Poissons Modulus and Shears Modulus, were: E1 = 294 MPa , E2 = 258 MPa , E3 = 153 MPa G23 = 86 MPa, G31 = 103 MPa e G12 = 100 MPa, v21 = 0,121, v31 = 0,076, v12 = 0,137, v32 = 0,077, v13 = 0,141 e v23 = 0,140. The Kruskal-Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance on Ranks was applied with pairwise multiple comparison procedures (Tukey Test) showing that E1 &#8800 E3, E2 &#8800 E3 e E1 = E2. This indicates that there are two different main directions of loading on the trabecular bone samples of human vertebrae which is related to a transversely isotropic symmetry. However the eigenvalues of the matrix M (tensor anisotropy) expressed a tendency to orthotropic symmetry of the trabecular microstructure of human vertebrae, showing that the fabric assumption does not adequately classify the symmetry of the structure. The assessment of microstructural properties showed a tendency to increase the connectivity of the trabeculae with the reduction of the analyzed subvolumes (100% to 20% or 18.5 mm to 3.7 mm) as well as an increase of the bone volume fraction values. Those results highlight the idea that mechanical properties are better described in local regions. In other words, a local assessment of the microstructure parameters volume fraction, connectivity, trabecular thickness, trabecular separation, trabecular number and mechanical parameters (Youngs Modulus, Poissons Modulus and Shears Modulus) can improve the prediction of bone strength, which predicts the risk of cancellous bone fracture accurately. When the mechanical properties are associated with microstructural information more bone quality parameters are generated for the diagnosis of bone metabolism diseases and they can predict the fracture risk of cancellous bone structures with higher accuracy. Therefore, the X-ray microtomography and finite element analysis offer a non-invasive technique with great potential for the assessment of bone quality.

The thesis investigates methods of examining corneal biomechanics using non-contact tonometry and introduces novel techniques to investigate corneal material properties in vivo. A comprehensive systems analysis of the CorvisST (CST) and Ocular Response Analyser (ORA) was performed. Pressure sensors were used to characterisation the airflow produced by the CST and the ORA. Distinct differences were observed between the central airflow pressures between the two devices: the CST pressure was higher and of shorter duration. Scheimpflug high-speed imaging via the CST allowed components of the corneal deformation to be investigated and the development of a 3D deformation matrix (time, depth and spatial resolution) through tracing of the anterior and posterior corneal surface. Measures of whole eye movement (WEM) with CST were found to be robust. WEM demonstrated an asymmetric profile and a correction method was developed to address the corneal deformation matrix for this asymmetry. Novel methods for characterisation of intrinsic material characteristics of the cornea were developed using numerical and graphical analytical procedures. Application of these parameters was tested on enucleated porcine eyes across a wide range of manometry internal ocular pressure (MIOP). The dynamic E-Modulus was found to be most affected by MIOP change. To investigate the in vivo distribution and heterogeneity of the corneal biomechanics, a novel set-up allowed the mapping of corneal biomechanics across the cornea using the CST (central, paracentral, peripheral) and ORA (central, peripheral). Biometric and demographic grouping of subjects allowed detection of discriminating factors between individuals. The results suggest that the in vivo cornea of healthy human adults can be characterised as a viscoelastic, damped system for longitudinal strain and a highly oscillating system for lateral strain. The cornea is approximately homogenous for measures of rigidity and dynamic E-Modulus but other corneal material characteristics (longitudinal and lateral strain, hysteresis, damping and compressibility) demonstrated regional differences. The experimental design employed allowed for strict control of biometric and biomechanical intersubject variables, based on gold-standard techniques as well as newly-developed methods, thereby creating a normative database for future use.

Pour la première fois, en associant un microscope à effet tunnel (STM) et un microscope optique inversé,nous avons imagé les plasmons de surface excités électriquement sur un film d’or avec la pointe d’un STM.Par microscopie de fuite radiative, en observant l’image de l’interface air/or et celle du plan de Fourierassocié, nous avons distingué les plasmons propagatifs des plasmons localisés sous la pointe. Les plasmonspropagatifs sont caractérisés par une distance de propagation et une direction d’émission en accord aveccelles de plasmons propagatifs créés par excitation laser sur des films d’or de mêmes épaisseurs. Les fuitesradiatives des plasmons localisés s’étalent jusqu’à l’angle maximum d’observation. Plasmons propagatifs etlocalisés ont une large bande spectrale dans le visible. Si la pointe est plasmonique (en argent), lesplasmons localisés ont une composante supplémentaire due au couplage associé. Pour différents types depointe, nous avons déterminé les intensités relatives des plasmons localisés et propagatifs. Nous trouvonsque chaque mode plasmon (propagatif ou localisé) peut être préférentiellement sélectionné en modifiant lematériau de la pointe et sa forme. Une pointe en argent produit une intensité élevée de plasmons localisés,tandis qu’une pointe fine de tungstène (rayon de l’apex inférieur à 100 nm) produit essentiellement desplasmons propagatifs. Nous avons étudié la cohérence spatiale des plasmons propagatifs excités par la pointe du STM. Avec un film d’or opaque (épaisseur 200 nm) percé de paires de nanotrous nous avons réalisé une expérienceanalogue à celle des fentes d’Young. Des franges d’interférences sont observées. La mesure de leurvisibilité en fonction de la distance des nanotrous donne une longueur de cohérence des plasmons de 4.7±0.5 μm. Cette valeur, très proche de la valeur 3.7± 1.2 μm déduite de la largeur de la distribution spectraledes plasmons, indique que l’élargissement spectral des plasmons propagatifs est homogène.Nous avons aussi étudié la diffusion des plasmons propagatifs excités par la pointe du STM par desnanoparticules d’or déposées sur un film d’épaisseur 50 nm. Nous observons une diffusion élastique et unediffusion radiative. Des franges d’interférences sont observées dans la région d’émission lumineuseinterdite du plan de Fourier, dont la période est inversement proportionnelle à la distancepointe-nanoparticule d’or avec un facteur de proportionnalité égal à la longueur d’onde moyenne desplasmons. Il y a donc interférence entre la radiation des plasmons localisés et la radiation provenant de ladiffusion des plasmons propagatifs sur les nanoparticules d’or. Ceci indique que les plasmons localisés etpropagatifs excités électriquement par la pointe du STM sont différentes composantes du plasmon uniqueproduit par effet tunnel inélastique avec la pointe du STM. Ces résultats originaux sur les plasmons créés sur film d’or par un effet tunnel inélastique localisé à l’échelle atomique (i) élargissent la compréhension du processus et (ii) offrent des perspectives intéressantes pour une association de la nanoélectronique et de la nanophotonique. / For the first time, using a equipment combining a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and an invertedoptical microscope, we excite and directly image STM-excited broadband propagating surface plasmons ona thin gold film. The STM-excited propagating surface plasmons have been imaged both in real space andFourier space by leakage radiation microscopy. Broadband localized surface plasmons due to the tip-goldfilm coupled plasmon resonance have also been detected. Quantitatively, we compare the intensities ofSTM-excited propagating and localized surface plasmons obtained with different STM tips. We find that the intensity of each plasmon mode can be selectively varied by changing the STM tip shape or material composition. A silver tip produces a high intensity of localized surface plasmons whereas a sharp (radius < 100 nm) tungsten tip produces mainly propagating surface plasmons. We have investigated the coherence of STM-excited propagating surface plasmons by performingexperiments on a 200 nm thick (opaque) gold film punctured by pairs of nanoholes. This work is analogousto Young’s double-slit experiment, and shows that STM-excited propagating surface plasmons have acoherence length of 4.7±0.5 μm. This coherent length is very close to the value 3.7±1.2 μm expected fromthe spectrum, which indicates that the spectrum broadening of STM-excited surface plasmons ishomogeneous. We have also studied the in-plane and radiative scattering of STM-excited propagating surface plasmons bygold nanoparticles deposited on a 50 nm thick gold film. In the Fourier space images, interference fringesare observed in the forbidden light region. This interference occurs between STM-excited localized surfaceplasmons (radiating at large angles from the tip position) and the radiative scattering by the goldnanoparticle of STM-excited propagating surface plasmons. This indicates that STM-excited localized andpropagating surface plasmons are different components of the same single plasmon produced by inelasticelectron tunneling with the STM tip. These results not only broaden the understanding about the excitation process of STM excited surface plasmons but also offer interesting perspectives for the connection between nanoelectronics andnanophotonics.

Ossos trabeculares possuem uma microestrutura porosa e podem ser modelados como um sólido elástico linear, heterogêneo e anisotrópico. A microtomografia tridimensional por raios-x (&#956CT) tem sido mundialmente utilizada para a caracterização de osso trabecular em pesquisas relacionadas à qualidade óssea e a doenças do metabolismo ósseo como a osteoporose. Na literatura existem poucas investigações sobre a influência de diferentes subvolumes amostrais na caracterização de propriedades mecânicas de osso trabecular humano através de &#956CT e ensaio mecânico computacional pelo método de Elementos Finitos. Nesta investigação doze vértebras humanas da região lombar foram utilizadas para a caracterização das propriedades mecânicas do osso trabecular através de &#956CT e modelagem computacional por elementos finitos. Uma amostra cúbica virtual com 18,5 mm de lado foi extraída de cada vértebra e quatro cubos menores centrais foram obtidos a partir dela com reduções de 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% do volume original de cada cubo. A abordagem Direct Mechanics por meio de análise de elementos finitos foi realizada através do Software FAIM (v6.0, Numerics88 Solutions Ltd). Os valores médios nas três direções principais de carregamento para os módulos de Young, Poisson e Torção obtidos foram, respectivamente, E1 = 294 MPa , E2 = 258 MPa , E3 = 153 MPa, G23 = 86 MPa, G31 = 103 MPa, G12 = 100 MPa, v21 = 0,121, v31 = 0,076, v12 = 0,137, v32 = 0,077, v13 = 0,141 e v23 = 0,140. O teste estatístico de Kruskal - Wallis ANOVA fator único foi aplicado com os procedimentos de comparação aos pares (teste de Tukey) mostrou que E1 &#8800 E3, E2 &#8800 E3 e E1 = E2. Isso indica que há a tendência para duas direções diferentes de carregamento mecânico nas amostras de osso trabecular das vértebras humanas analisadas, caracterizando uma simetria transversalmente isotrópica. Entretanto, os autovalores da matriz M (tensor anisotropia) expressaram uma tendência da microestrutura trabecular das vértebras humanas para a simetria ortotrópica, mostrando que a análise do fabric não classifica adequadamente a simetria da estrutura. A avaliação dos parâmetros microestruturais mostrou a tendência de um aumento do grau de conectividade das trabéculas a medida que ocorre uma redução dos subvolumes analisados (100% para 20% ou em milímetros de 18,5 para 3,7) acompanhado de um acréscimo dos valores da fração de volume ósseo. Esta tendência reforça a ideia de analisar-se as possíveis variações dos parâmetros morfométricos e mecânicos em domínios específicos. Em outras palavras, uma avaliação local com a escolha de volumes menores dos parâmetros microestruturais fração de volume, conectividade, espessura trabecular, separação trabecular, número trabecular e parâmetros mecânicos (Módulos de Young, Poisson e Torção) podem melhorar o prognóstico da resistência óssea, a qual prediz o risco de fratura de estruturas de osso esponjoso com precisão. Quando as propriedades mecânicas estão associadas com informações microestruturais por &#956CT são gerados mais parâmetros para se avaliar a qualidade óssea no diagnóstico de doenças do metabolismo ósseo. Portanto, a microtomografia de raios-X e análise de elementos finitos oferecem uma técnica não-invasiva com grande potencial para a avaliação da qualidade óssea. / Trabecular bone structures have a porous microstructure and can be modeled as linear elastic solid with a heterogeneous and anisotropic structure. The X-ray microtomography (&#956CT) has been used worldwide for the characterization of trabecular bone and its relationship with bone quality in metabolism diseases such as osteoporosis. In the literature there are few investigations regarding the influence of trabecular samples subvolumes in the assessment of microstructure and mechanical properties using &#956CT and finite element analysis. In this investigation twelve human vertebraes were used for the characterization of mechanical properties of trabecular bone using CT and computational modeling by finite elements. A cube sample with 18.5 mm sides was computationally extracted from each vertebrae and four smaller central cubes were obtained from it, with a 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% reduction from the original volume. The Direct Mechanics approach by finite element analysis was performed through the FAIM Software (v6.0, Numerics88 Solutions Ltd.). The mean values on three main directions of loading for Youngs Modulus, Poissons Modulus and Shears Modulus, were: E1 = 294 MPa , E2 = 258 MPa , E3 = 153 MPa G23 = 86 MPa, G31 = 103 MPa e G12 = 100 MPa, v21 = 0,121, v31 = 0,076, v12 = 0,137, v32 = 0,077, v13 = 0,141 e v23 = 0,140. The Kruskal-Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance on Ranks was applied with pairwise multiple comparison procedures (Tukey Test) showing that E1 &#8800 E3, E2 &#8800 E3 e E1 = E2. This indicates that there are two different main directions of loading on the trabecular bone samples of human vertebrae which is related to a transversely isotropic symmetry. However the eigenvalues of the matrix M (tensor anisotropy) expressed a tendency to orthotropic symmetry of the trabecular microstructure of human vertebrae, showing that the fabric assumption does not adequately classify the symmetry of the structure. The assessment of microstructural properties showed a tendency to increase the connectivity of the trabeculae with the reduction of the analyzed subvolumes (100% to 20% or 18.5 mm to 3.7 mm) as well as an increase of the bone volume fraction values. Those results highlight the idea that mechanical properties are better described in local regions. In other words, a local assessment of the microstructure parameters volume fraction, connectivity, trabecular thickness, trabecular separation, trabecular number and mechanical parameters (Youngs Modulus, Poissons Modulus and Shears Modulus) can improve the prediction of bone strength, which predicts the risk of cancellous bone fracture accurately. When the mechanical properties are associated with microstructural information more bone quality parameters are generated for the diagnosis of bone metabolism diseases and they can predict the fracture risk of cancellous bone structures with higher accuracy. Therefore, the X-ray microtomography and finite element analysis offer a non-invasive technique with great potential for the assessment of bone quality.

Kamouflagenät är ett viktigt verktyg inom försvarsindustrin där det används för att maskera eller dölja objekt från att bli visuellt upptäckta. Kamouflagenät är utformade för att efterlikna den omgivande miljön eller terräng som den appliceras vid. Traditionellt tillverkas kamouflagesystemen genom virkningsstekniken bi-axial varptrikå med två system inslagstrådar i 0° respektive 90°. För produktutvecklingens syfte att tillverka ett lätt kamouflagenät med lämpliga hållfasthetsegenskaper, undersöks tekniken multi-axial varptrikå med fyra system inslagstrådar i 0°, 90° och ±45°. Genom semi-strukturerade intervjuer med experter inom bi- och multi-axial varptrikå samlas det in information och fakta om multi-axial teknik. Detta fungerar som en grund för att avgöra om det är en möjlig teknik för den befintliga produkten. En teoretisk modellering utförs sedan för att undersöka, förutsäga samt jämföra beteenden och egenskaper hos de bi- och multi-axiella strukturerna. De semi-strukturerade intervjuerna resulterade i en omfattande och informativ faktainsamling om multi-axial teknik. Det inhämtades underlag gällande hur tillämpbar den multi-axiella tekniken är för kamouflagenät, samt information om maskinens begränsningar och trådorientering. Den teoretiska modelleringen innebär tillämpning av kända matematiska och fysikaliska begrepp, modelleringen lägger således en grund för att förstå mekaniska beteenden hos bi -och multi-axiella strukturer då de utsätts för små deformationer. Den teoretiska modelleringen resulterade i värden som beskriver styvheten hos de båda strukturerna vid deformationer på =0,01 i fyra riktningar. Kunskapen om lämpliga styvhetsegenskaper för kamouflagenät i kombination med resultatet från den teoretiska modelleringen lade en grund för att dra slutsatser om ifall multi-axiella strukturer, som är lika lätta som motsvarande bi-axiella strukturer vilka idag används i kamouflagenät, är lämpliga för att användas i kamouflagenät. Resultaten från modelleringen visar att de multi-axiella strukturerna i nästan samtliga fall har lägre elasticitetsmodul än deras motsvarande bi-axiella strukturer, detta innebär att det inte krävs lika stor kraft för att deformera de multi-axiella strukturerna. Modelleringen visar även att de båda strukturerna besitter olika egenskaper i olika riktningar, där de multi-axiella strukturerna beter sig likadant i alla fyra riktningar, till skillnad från de bi-axiella strukturerna som inte gör det. Enligt resultatet beror styvheten för de båda strukturerna på ett antal olika faktorer; trådtäthet, garnnummer och effektiv bredd, vilka appliceras som variabler i den teoretiska modelleringen. Modelleringen resulterade alltså därmed både till en förståelse för vilka faktorer som bidrar till skillnader i styvheten, och hur styvheten förhåller sig hos de båda strukturerna i olika riktningar. Studien visar att det i praktiken finns goda möjligheter för tillverkning av kamouflagenät i multi-axial varptrikå och att de multi-axiella strukturerna både kan göra kamouflagenäten mindre styva och bidra till isotropiska egenskaper. / Camouflage net is an essential device in the arms industry, where it is utilized to camouflage and hide objects from being visually detected. The camouflage net is designed to imitate the surrounding environment or terrain in which it is being applied. Traditionally, camouflage systems are manufactured using a knitting technique called bi-axial warp knitting with two systems of inlay yarns in 0° and 90° angles relative to the fabrics warp direction. To enhance the current product and produce light camouflage net with suitable strength properties, the multi-axial warp knitting technique with four systems of inlay yarns at 0°, 90° and ±45° angles is investigated. By utilizing semi-structured interviews with experts in the area of bi- and multi-axial warp knitting, can information and facts about multi-axial be collected and be used as a basis for concluding whether multi-axial is a suitable technique for the existing product. A theoretical modeling is then performed to examine, predict and compare the behaviors and properties of the bi- and multi-axial structures. The semi-structured interviews resulted in a comprehensive and informative collection of data about multi-axial technique. It also gathered information about the suitability and application of the technique to camouflage nets, as well as information regarding the machine’s limitations and thread orientation. The theoretical modeling involves the application of known mathematical and physical concepts, thus providing a foundation for understanding the mechanical behavior of bi- and multi-axial structures under small deformations. The theoretical modeling resulted in values that describe the stiffness of both structures at deformations of =0,01 in four directions. The knowledge of appropriate stiffness properties for camouflage nets, combined with the results from the theoretical modeling, laid the groundwork for drawing conclusions about the suitability of using multi-axial structures, which are as lightweight as the corresponding bi-axial structures currently used in camouflage nets. The modeling results show that the multi-axial structures generally have a lower initial modulus than their corresponding bi-axial structures, indicating that less force is required to deform the multi-axial structures. The modeling also reveals that the two structures exhibit different properties in different directions, with the multi-axial structures behaving similarly in all four directions, unlike the bi-axial structures. According to the results, the stiffness of both structures depends on several factors: thread density, yarn count, and effective width, which are applied as variables in the theoretical modeling. Thus, the modeling provides an understanding of the factors contributing to differences in stiffness and how the stiffness varies between the two structures in different directions. The study demonstrates that there are promising opportunities for manufacturing camouflage nets using multi-axial warp knit fabric in practice, and that the multi-axial structures can both reduce the stiffness of camouflage nets and contribute to isotropic properties.