Photovoltaic devices are receiving growing interest in both industry and research institutions due to the great demand for clean and renewable energy. Among all types of solar cells, cadmium sulfide (CdS) – cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium sulfide (CdS) - copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2 or CIS) heterojunctions based thin film solar cells are of great interest due to their high efficiency and low cost. Further improvement in power conversion efficiency over the traditional device structure can be achieved by tuning the optical and electric properties of the light absorption layer as well as the window layer, utilizing nano template-assisted patterning and fabrication. In this dissertation, simulation and calculation of photocurrent generation in nanowires (NW) based heterojunction structure indicated that an estimated 25% improvement in power conversion efficiency can be expected in nano CdS – CdTe solar cells. Two novel device configurations for CdTe solar cells were developed where the traditional thin film CdS window layer was replaced by nanowires of CdS, embedded in aluminum oxide matrix or free standing. Nanostructured devices of the two designs were fabricated and a power conversion efficiency value of 6.5% was achieved. Porous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) was used as the template for device fabrication. A technology for removing the residual aluminum oxide barrier layer between indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate and AAO pores was developed. Causes and remedies for the non-uniform barrier layer were investigated, and barrier-free AAO on ITO substrate were obtained. Also, vertically aligned nanowire arrays of CIS of controllable diameter and length were produced by simultaneously electrodepositing Cu, In and Se from an acid bath into the AAO pores formed on top of an aluminum sheet. Ohmic contact to CIS was formed by depositing a 100 nm thick gold layer on top and thus a Schottky diode device of the Au/CIS nanowires/Al configuration was obtained. Material properties of all these nanowires were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), absorption measurement. Current-voltage (I-V), capacitance-voltage (C-V) and low-temperature measurements were performed for all types of devices and the results were analyzed to advance the understanding of electron transport in these nano-structured devices.

Numerical simulations have been performed to study the single-charge-induced ON current fluctuations (random telegraphic noise) in conventional (MOSFET) and non-conventional (silicon nanowire) nanoscale field-effect transistors. A semi-classical three-dimensional particle-based Monte Carlo device simulator (MCDS 3-D) has been integrated and used in this work. Quantum mechanical space-quantization effects have been accounted for via a parameter-free effective potential scheme that has been proved quite successful in describing charge set back from the interface and quantization of the energy (bandgap widening) within the channel region of the device. The effective potential is based on a perturbation theory around thermodynamic equilibrium and leads to a quantum field formalism in which the size of the electron depends upon its energy. To treat full Coulomb (electron-ion and electron-electron) interactions properly, the simulator implements two different real-space molecular dynamics (MD) schemes: the particle-particle-particle-mesh (P3M) method and the corrected Coulomb approach. For better accuracy, particularly in case of nanowire FETs, bandstructure parameters (bandgap, effective masses, and density of states) have been computed via a 20-band nearest-neighbor sp3d5s* tight-binding scheme. Also, since the presence of single impurities in the channel region represents a rare event in the carrier transport process, necessary event-biasing algorithms have been implemented in the simulator that, while enhancing the statistics, results in a faster convergence in the chan-nel current. The study confirms that, due to the presence of single channel charges, both the electrostatics (carrier density) and dynamics (mobility) are modified and, therefore, simultaneously play important roles in determining the magnitude of the current fluctuations. The relative impact (percentage change in the ON current) depends on an intricate interplay of device size, geometry, crystal direction, gate bias, temperature, and energetics and spatial location of the trap.

abstract: This thesis mainly focuses on the study of quantum efficiency (QE) and its measurement, especially for nanowires (NWs). First, a brief introduction of nano-technology and nanowire is given to describe my initial research interest. Next various fundamental kinds of recombination mechanisms are described; both for radiative and non-radiative processes. This is an introduction for defining the internal quantum efficiency (IQE). A relative IQE measurement method is shown following that. Then it comes to the major part of the thesis discussing a procedure of quantum efficiency measurement using photoluminescence (PL) method and an integrating sphere, which has not been much applied to nanowires (NWs). In fact this is a convenient and useful approach for evaluating the quality of NWs since it considers not only the PL emission but also the absorption of NWs. The process is well illustrated and performed with both wavelength-dependent and power-dependent measurements. The measured PLQE is in the range of 0.3% ~ 5.4%. During the measurement, a phenomenon called photodegradation is observed and examined by a set of power-dependence measurements. This effect can be a factor for underestimating the PLQE and a procedure is introduced during the sample preparation process which managed to reduce this effect for some degree. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2012

abstract: Nanowires are one-dimensional (1D) structures with diameter on the nanometer scales with a high length-to-diameter aspect ratio. Nanowires of various materials including semiconductors, dielectrics and metals have been intensively researched in the past two decades for applications to electrical and optical devices. Typically, nanowires are synthesized using the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) approach, which allows defect-free 1D growth despite the lattice mismatch between nanowires and substrates. Lattice mismatch issue is a serious problem in high-quality thin film growth of many semiconductors and non-semiconductors. Therefore, nanowires provide promising platforms for the applications requiring high crystal quality materials. With the 1D geometry, nanowires are natural optical waveguides for light guiding and propagation. By introducing feedback mechanisms to nanowire waveguides, such as the cleaved end facets, the nanowires can work as ultra-small size lasers. Since the first demonstration of the room-temperature ultraviolet nanowire lasers in 2001, the nanowire lasers covering from ultraviolet to mid infrared wavelength ranges have been intensively studied. This dissertation focuses on the optical characterization and laser fabrication of two nanowire materials: erbium chloride silicate nanowires and composition-graded CdSSe semiconductor alloy nanowires. Chapter 1 – 5 of this dissertation presents a comprehensive characterization of a newly developed erbium compound material, erbium chloride silicate (ECS) in a nanowire form. Extensive experiments demonstrated the high crystal quality and excellent optical properties of ECS nanowires. Optical gain higher than 30 dB/cm at 1.53 μm wavelength is demonstrated on single ECS nanowires, which is higher than the gain of any reported erbium materials. An ultra-high Q photonic crystal micro-cavity is designed on a single ECS nanowire towards the ultra-compact lasers at communication wavelengths. Such ECS nanowire lasers show the potential applications of on-chip photonics integration. Chapter 6 – 7 presents the design and demonstration of dynamical color-controllable lasers on a single CdSSe alloy nanowire. Through the defect-free VLS growth, engineering of the alloy composition in a single nanowire is achieved. The alloy composition of CdSxSe1-x uniformly varies along the nanowire axis from x=1 to x=0, giving the opportunity of multi-color lasing in a monolithic structure. By looping the wide-bandgap end of the alloy nanowire through nanoscale manipulation, the simultaneous two-color lasing at green and red colors are demonstrated. The 107 nm wavelength separation of the two lasing colors is much larger than the gain bandwidth of typical semiconductors. Since the two-color lasing shares the output port, the color of the total lasing output can be controlled dynamically between the two fundamental colors by changing the relative output power of two lasing colors. Such multi-color lasing and continuous color tuning in a wide spectral range would eventually enable color-by-design lasers to be used for lighting, display and many other applications. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2015

abstract: Measurements of the response of superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD) devices to changes in various forms of input power can be used for characterization of the devices and for probing device-level physics. Two niobium nitride (NbN) superconducting nanowires developed for use as SNSPD devices are embedded as the inductive (L) component in resonant inductor/capacitor (LC) circuits coupled to a microwave transmission line. The capacitors are low loss commercial chip capacitors which limit the internal quality factor of the resonators to approximately $Qi = 170$. The resonator quality factor, approximately $Qr = 23$, is dominated by the coupling to the feedline and limits the detection bandwidth to on the order of 1MHz. In our experiments with this first generation device, we measure the response of the SNSPD devices to changes in thermal and optical power in both the time domain and the frequency domain. Additionally, we explore the non-linear response of the devices to an applied bias current. For these nanowires, we find that the band-gap energy is $\Delta_0 \approx 1.1$meV and that the density of states at the Fermi energy is $N_0 \sim 10^{10}$/eV/$\mu$m$^3$. We present the results of experimentation with a superconducting nanowire that can be operated in two detection modes: i) as a kinetic inductance detector (KID) or ii) as a single photon detector (SPD). When operated as a KID mode in linear mode, the detectors are AC-biased with tones at their resonant frequencies of 45.85 and 91.81MHz. When operated as an SPD in Geiger mode, the resonators are DC biased through cryogenic bias tees and each photon produces a sharp voltage step followed by a ringdown signal at the resonant frequency of the detector. We show that a high AC bias in KID mode is inferior for photon counting experiments compared to operation in a DC-biased SPD mode due to the small fraction of time spent near the critical current with an AC bias. We find a photon count rate of $\Gamma_{KID} = 150~$photons/s/mA in a critically biased KID mode and a photon count rate of $\Gamma_{SPD} = 10^6~$photons/s/mA in SPD mode. This dissertation additionally presents simulations of a DC-biased, frequency-multiplexed readout of SNSPD devices in Advanced Design System (ADS), LTspice, and Sonnet. A multiplexing factor of 100 is achievable with a total count rate of $>5$MHz. This readout could enable a 10000-pixel array for astronomy or quantum communications. Finally, we present a prototype array design based on lumped element components. An early implementation of the array is presented with 16 pixels in the frequency range of 74.9 to 161MHz. We find good agreement between simulation and experimental data in both the time domain and the frequency domain and present modifications for future versions of the array. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Physics 2018

abstract: This dissertation presents research findings on the three materials systems: lateral Si nanowires (SiNW), In₂Se₃/Bi₂Se₃ heterostructures and graphene. The first part of the thesis was focused on the growth and characterization of lateral SiNW. Lateral here refers to wires growing along the plane of substrate; vertical NW on the other hand grow out of the plane of substrate. It was found, using the Au-seeded vapor – liquid – solid technique, that epitaxial single-crystal SiNW can be grown laterally along Si(111) substrates that have been miscut toward [11− 2]. The ratio of lateral-to-vertical NW was found to increase as the miscut angle increased and as disilane pressure and substrate temperature decreased. Based on this observation, growth parameters were identified whereby all of the deposited Au seeds formed lateral NW. Furthermore, the nanofaceted substrate guided the growth via a mechanism that involved pinning of the trijunction at the liquid/solid interface of the growing nanowire. Next, the growth of selenide heterostructures was explored. Specifically, molecular beam epitaxy was utilized to grow In₂Se₃ and Bi₂Se₃ films on h-BN, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite and Si(111) substrates. Growth optimizations of In₂Se₃ and Bi₂Se₃ films were carried out by systematically varying the growth parameters. While the growth of these films was demonstrated on h-BN and HOPG surface, the majority of the effort was focused on growth on Si(111). Atomically flat terraces that extended laterally for several hundred nm, which were separated by single quintuple layer high steps characterized surface of the best In₂Se₃ films grown on Si(111). These In₂Se₃ films were suitable for subsequent high quality epitaxy of Bi₂Se₃ . The last part of this dissertation was focused on a recently initiated and ongoing study of graphene growth on liquid metal surfaces. The initial part of the study comprised a successful modification of an existing growth system to accommodate graphene synthesis and process development for reproducible graphene growth. Graphene was grown on Cu, Au and AuCu alloys at varioua conditions. Preliminary results showed triangular features on the liquid part of the Cu metal surface. For Au, and AuCu alloys, hexagonal features were noticed both on the solid and liquid parts. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2014

Les nanofils nitrures présentent des propriétés optoélectroniques extraordinaires et sont considérés comme des matériaux prometteurs pour des diodes électroluminescentes (LEDs), grâce à leur haute qualité cristalline, leurs surfaces non-polaires, leur bonne flexibilité mécanique, leur rapport d’aspect élevé, etc.Cette thèse adresse la croissance, la fabrication, les caractérisations optiques et électriques et la simulation optique des dispositifs à base de nanofils nitrures, avec un accent particulier sur les LEDs à nanofils.Premièrement, cette thèse présente la croissance par épitaxie en phase vapeur aux organométalliques de nanofils nitrures cœur-coquille auto-assemblés contenant des puits quantiques InGaN/GaN sur les facettes plan m avec différentes concentrations d’In. Puis est décrite la fabrication de LEDs utilisant ces nanofils suivant deux différentes stratégies d’intégration (intégrations planaires et verticales).L’intégration planaire est basée sur des nanofils uniques dispersés horizontalement. J’ai proposé une plateforme photonique intégrée composée d’une LED à nanofil, d’un guide d’onde optimisé et d’un photodétecteur à nanofil. J’ai également développé un système d’alignement des nanofils.L’intégration verticale a pour objectif la réalisation de LEDs flexibles reposant sur une assemblée de nanofils verticaux encapsulées dans des polymères. Je montre que ceci permet la fabrication de LEDs flexibles monochromatiques, bi-couleurs ou blanches.Les nanofils épitaxiés sur des matériaux 2D par épitaxie de van de Waals sont faciles à décoller de leur substrat natif. Avec cette motivation, dans la dernière partie de cette thèse, j’ai étudié la croissance organisée des nanofils GaN sur du graphène micro et nano-structuré utilisant l’épitaxie par jets moléculaires. / Nitride nanowires exhibit outstanding opto-electronic and mechanical properties and are considered as promising materials for light-emitting diodes (LEDs), thanks to their high crystalline quality, non-polar facets, good mechanical flexibility, high aspect ratio, etc.This Ph.D. thesis addresses the growth, the device fabrication, the optical and electrical characterizations and the optical simulations of III-nitride NW devices, with a special emphasis on the LED applications.First, this thesis presents the growth of m-plane InGaN/GaN quantum wells with different In concentrations in self-assembled core-shell nanowires by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Then, by using these nanowires, LED devices based on two different integration strategies (namely, in-plane and vertical integration) are demonstrated.The in-plane integration is based on the horizontally dispersed single nanowires. I have proposed a basic integrated photonic platform consisting of a nanowire LED, an optimized waveguide and a nanowire photodetector. I have also developed a nanowire alignment system using dielectrophoresis.The vertical integration targets the fabrication of flexible LEDs based on vertical nanowire arrays embedded in polymer membranes. Flexible monochromatic, bi-color, white LEDs have been demonstrated. Their thermal properties have been analyzed.The nanowires grown on 2D materials by van der Waals epitaxy are easy to be lifted-off from their native substrate, which should facilitate the fabrication of flexible nanowire devices. With this motivation, in the last part of this thesis, I have investigated the selective area growth of GaN NWs on micro- and nano- scale graphene by molecular beam epitaxy.

Among the alternatives to conventional Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) used in making transparent conducting electrodes, the random metal nanowire (NW) networks are considered to be superior offering performance at par with ITO. The performance is measured in terms of sheet resistance and optical transmittance. However, as the electrical properties of such random networks are achieved thanks to a percolation network, a minimum size of the electrodes is needed so it actually exceeds the representative volume element (RVE) of the material and the macroscopic electrical properties are achieved. There is not much information about the compatibility of this minimum RVE size with the resolution actually needed in electronic devices. Furthermore, the efficiency of NWs in terms of electrical conduction is overlooked. In this work, we address the above industrially relevant questions - 1) The minimum size of electrodes that can be made based on the dimensions of NWs and the material coverage. For this, we propose a morphology based classification in defining the RVE size and we also compare the same with that is based on macroscopic electrical properties stabilization. 2) The amount of NWs that do not participate in electrical conduction, hence of no practical use. The results presented in this thesis are a design guide to experimentalists to design transparent electrodes with more optimal usage of the material.

In 2018 alone, the global energy demand grew by 2.3% and will rise by 1.3% each year to 2040 [1] making it the fastest growth rate in the last decade predominantly driven by a robust global economy and increased heating and cooling needs. This tremendous need resulted in using fossil fuels to meet nearly 70% of the growth, but also promoted solar and wind generation to have a double-digit growth pace, with solar alone increasing by 31%. Terrestrial solar energy at AM1.5 is generally given at 1kW/m2, which is a vast free source of energy that can be harvested to meet the global demand for electricity [2]. A major obstacle for large scale solar power production is obscuration of sunlight on solar collectors caused by dust deposition or ‘soiling’ as the power plants are located in semi-arid or desert regions. Soiling could result in energy-yield output losses of about a third of the total power output of the installation [3] as water is a scarce commodity, resulting in lesser cleaning cycles of the solar collectors. Electrodynamic Screen (EDS) films can restore the efficiency of solar power installations without the use of water, manual labor or robots and can be retrofitted onto the sun facing surfaces of solar collectors, including concentrating solar power mirrors (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) modules. Applying a low frequency pulsed voltage to the electrodes which form the central unit of the EDS films charges the dust on the collector surface and ejects it using a travelling wave. The electrodes are of paramount importance to the EDS film as they are the primary working unit of the device. Copper is the current choice of electrode material but it is susceptible to electromigration and has serious environmental disadvantages with respect to corrosion and instability. Copper electrodes also do not meet the transmission efficiency (TE) requirements as the opaque electrodes absorb and obstruct the incident sunlight through shadowing, hurting the output efficiency of the photovoltaic modules. Hence for the EDS film to be a strong candidate as a cleaning technology, it must have environmentally durable electrodes that meet the TE needs. For this purpose (1) I have developed a screen printable ink with zinc oxide (ZnO) and silver nanowire (AgNW) that is transparent in nature which satisfies the TE requirements of the EDS film which were previously unmet; this ink referred to as AgNW_ZnO Hybrid Ink throughout this document is my original contribution for the optimization of the optical performance of the EDS film technology. (2) I have established the environmental durability, stability and functionality of the electrodes of the EDS film through standardized, vigorous testing which were not performed before. To do so, I have followed the testing standards specified under the Accelerated Weathering (QUV) ASTM G154 tests which are used to validate the environmental viability of materials (3) My study and findings on the top surface component of the EDS film proposes measures of action that will enhance the removal of dust and suggests alternative, more cost efficient replacements for the ultrathin glass layer which serves as the current design’s top layer (4) My experiments and results on the charging mechanism/behavior of dust particles upon EDS film activation contribute to optimizing the design parameters used for both the EDS film and the power supply unit used to power it. These contributions allow for increasing the output power restoration of PV modules and specular reflection restoration of CSP mirrors that have the EDS film on their optical surfaces.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第20381号 / 工博第4318号 / 新制||工||1669(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科電子工学専攻 / (主査)教授 木本 恒暢, 教授 白石 誠司, 准教授 浅野 卓 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM