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Organic methods development has long dictated the molecular scaffolds available to the pharmaceutical and fine chemical synthesis industries. Photoredox catalysis has emerged as a powerful platform to enable novel reactivity with visible light irradiation through triplet sensitization and single-electron transfer. New methods involving radical intermediates are now readily accessible from countless starting materials through the application of these catalysts. Much of my work has utilized established photoredox platforms to enable both nickel catalyzed remote cross-coupling of primary amines via 1,5 hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT) and formal [3+2] synthesis of γ-lactams through triplet sensitization. My further work focuses on the application of ligand-to-metal charge transfer catalysis with cupric chloride and ferric chloride salts towards the alkylation of alkanes through the catalytic generation of chlorine radical to enable HAT. These studies expand photoredox catalysis to inner sphere mechanisms with abundant base-metal salts to enable redox chemistry at reduced electrochemical potentials.

In this work we investigated fabrication of semiconductor nanomaterials and evaluated their potential for photo-chemical and photovoltaic applications. We investigated two different II-VI semiconductor nanomaterial systems; (i) ZnO oriented nanowire arrays non-epitaxially grown from a substrate; and (ii) colloidal CdTe nanotetrapods synthesized by solution-based thermal decomposition of organo-metallic precursors. In both the cases our main focus has been optimizing material synthesis for improving potential applications based on photon-electron interactions. We have studied the synthesis of vertically aligned ZnO nanowire arrays (NWA), by a wet chemical process on various substrates. The synthesis is based on epitaxial growth of ZnO seed-layer on a substrate in a chemical bath consisting of an aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT). We have suggested an additional role played by HMT during the synthesis of ZnO nanowire arrays. We have also extended this synthesis method to fabricate hierarchical nanostructures of nanofibers of poly-L-lactide acting as a substrate for the radially oriented growth of ZnO nanowires. The combination of high surface area of the nanofibrous substrate with the flexibility of the PLLA-ZnO hierarchical nanostructure enabled the proof-of-principle demonstration of a ‘continuous-flow’ water treatment system that could effectively decompose single and combination of known organic pollutants in water, as well as render common waterborne bacteria nonviable. We have studied another chemical synthesis that is commonly used for size controlled synthesis of colloidal quantum dots, which was modified to obtain anisotropic nanocrystals mainly for CdE (E=S, Se, Te) compositions. In this work we demonstrate by use of oleic acid (instead of alkylphosphonic acids) it is possible to synthesize CdTe and CdSe nanotetrapods at much lower temperatures (~180 ºC) than what is commonly reported in the literature, with significantly different  formation mechanism in the low-temperature reaction. Finally, we have performed preliminary photoconduction measurements with CdTe nanotetrapods using gold ‘nanogap’ electrodes fabricated in-house, and obtain up to 100 times enhancement in current levels in the I–V measurements under illumination with a white light source. / QC20100607

The two-photon absorption (2PA) phenomenon has attracted attention from various fields ranging from chemistry and biology to optics and engineering. Two of the common NLO applications in which organic materials have been used are three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence imaging and optical power limiting. Two-photon absorbing materials are, therefore, in great demand to meet the needs of emerging technologies. Organic molecules show great promise to meet this need as they can be customized through molecular engineering, and as the development of two-photon materials that suit practical application intensifies, so does research to meet this need. However, there remains some uncertainty in the particulars of design criteria for molecules with large 2PA cross sections at desired wavelengths, as such research to understand structure-property relationships is matter of significant importance. As a result, the full potential of 2PA materials has not been fully exploited. Several strategies to enhance the magnitude and tune the wavelength of 2PA have been reported for ?-conjugated organic molecules. On this account, we have designed novel fluorophores using the fluorene moiety and modified it to tune the properties of the compounds. Chapter 2 of this dissertation reports the successful application of fluorene-based compounds in photocatalysis; a process that involves the decomposition of organic compounds into environmentally friendly carbon dioxide and water attesting to the photostability of the fluorene moiety. A facile organic nanoparticle preparation method is reported in chapter 3 using the reprecipitation method, whose surface was then modified using a naturally occurring surfactant, Lecithin, and were then successfully used in fluorescence cell imaging. Chapter 4 reports the design and synthesis of a fluorene-based compound using an acceptor, s-indacene-1, 3, 5, 7(2H, 6H)-tetra one, or Janus Dione, a moiety that is relatively new and that has not been fully exploited despite its very attractive features. Owing to the hydrophobicity of this compound, notwithstanding its unprecedented 2PA cross section, it was not applicable in fluorescence cell imaging but provided the tenets for the design of related derivative. This limitation was circumvented in the concluding chapter by tuning the compound's hydrophilicity. The hydrophilic Janus dione probe was then used as envisioned for cell imaging as the dual prerequisites for fluorescence imaging probes; large 2PA cross sections and high fluorescence quantum yields were met.

[ES] La presente tesis doctoral se centró en el desarrollo y modificación de materiales microestructurados basados en sulfuros metálicos para la producción de combustibles solares. Se obtuvieron y caracterizaron dos nuevos materiales laminares basados en sulfuro de estaño y zinc, IZM-5 e ITQ-75. Dado que se pretende utilizar dichos materiales en procesos basados en el uso de energía solar, fue necesario ajustar su estructura electrónica mediante una estrategia de dopaje y su accesibilidad mediante la modificación de la composición del gel de síntesis o mediante métodos posteriores a la síntesis. Se probaron diferentes agentes dopantes como cobre, cobalto, níquel y hierro, así como la inserción de un complejo de rutenio. Los más exitosos fueron el cobre y el cobalto, ya que con su presencia es posible reducir el valor de la band gap a 2,0 eV, un valor dentro del rango óptimo para procesos de producción de combustibles solares. Cuando estos agentes dopantes estuvieron presentes en el gel de síntesis de IZM-5, se descubrió que no se obtenía el patrón de difracción esperado, sino uno de un nuevo material, denominado ITQ-76. Al igual que con las zeolitas, los primeros intentos para permitir el acceso a los centros fotoactivos consistieron en liberar la microporosidad, la superficie interna, mediante la eliminación del agente orgánico director de estructura utilizado durante el proceso de síntesis. Se intentó alternativamente mejorar la superficie externa (tamaño de partícula o mesoporosidad). De las diferentes estrategias probadas, se descubrió que variar la composición del gel de síntesis fue la más exitosa. Se probaron la inserción de sacáridos, previamente estudiados en la literatura como agentes inductores de mesoporosidad, y el aumento de la viscosidad del gel de síntesis para disminuir el tamaño de cristal final. Sin embargo, la presencia de sacáridos no condujo a la formación de un sistema mesoporoso; la mejora en la accesibilidad se debió a la disminución del tamaño de partícula. Al aumentar la viscosidad del gel, también fue posible disminuir el tamaño promedio de los cristales y, en consecuencia, aumentar la superficie externa. Después de la modificación de las estructuras estudiadas con el fin de obtener una amplia gama de propiedades, se evaluó su rendimiento fotocatalítico mediante la reacción de ruptura de la molécula de agua. Parecía existir una relación tipo "volcano" entre el rendimiento fotocatalítico y la superficie externa. Según la literatura revisada, este comportamiento podría explicarse por el equilibrio entre el aumento de los centros activos disponibles y el aumento de los defectos en la superficie, los cuales son centros potenciales de recombinación. En cuanto a la relación entre el rendimiento fotocatalítico y el valor de la band gap, nuevamente parece existir una relación tipo "volcano". Según la bibliografía revisada, se encontró que con la reducción del valor de la band gap aumenta el número de fotones absorbidos y, como tal, se espera que aumente el rendimiento. Sin embargo, es necesario que las cargas fotogeneradas tengan un potencial suficiente para participar en la reacción deseada. Como resultado, por debajo de cierto valor de band gap, las cargas fotogeneradas ya no tienen un potencial suficiente y, por ello, el rendimiento disminuye. De las diferentes muestras probadas, las modificadas con sacarosa destacaron por tener el mejor rendimiento. Hasta ahora no ha sido posible desentrañar el fenómeno detrás de esta mayor reactividad. Por lo tanto, se requiere una caracterización más detallada de estas muestras para comprender cómo la presencia del componente orgánico influye en la estructura electrónica del material y, en consecuencia, en su rendimiento. También sería importante evaluar la estabilidad del componente orgánico durante la reacción, específicamente para verificar que no sufra un proceso de oxidación que pueda producir protones, que luego sean capaces de formar hidrógeno. / [CA] La present tesi doctoral es va centrar en el desenvolupament i modificació de materials microestructurats basats en sulfurs metàl·lics per a la producció de combustibles solars. Es van obtenir i caracteritzar dos nous materials lamel·lars basats en sulfur d'estany i zinc, IZM-5 i ITQ-75. Com que es pretén utilitzar aquests materials en processos basats en l'ús d'energia solar, va ser necessari ajustar la seua estructura electrònica mitjançant una estratègia de dopatge i la seua accessibilitat mitjançant la modificació de la composició del gel de síntesi o mitjançant mètodes posteriors a la síntesi. Es van provar diferents agents dopants com coure, cobalt, níquel i ferro, així com la inserció d'un complex de ruteni. Els més reeixits van ser el coure i el cobalt, ja que amb la seua presència és possible reduir el valor de la band gap a 2,0 eV, un valor dins de l'abast òptim per a processos de producció de combustibles solars. Quan aquests agents dopants van estar presents en el gel de síntesi d'IZM-5, es va descobrir que no s'obtenia el patró de difracció esperat, sinó un de nou material, anomenat ITQ-76. Al igual que amb les zeolites, els primers intents per a permetre l'accés als centres fotoactius van consistir en alliberar la microporositat, la superfície interna, mitjançant l'eliminació de l'agent orgànic director d'estructura utilitzat durant el procés de síntesi. Es va intentar alternativament millorar la superfície externa (mida de partícula o mesoporositat). De les diferents estratègies provades, es va descobrir que variar la composició del gel de síntesi va ser la més reeixida. Es van provar la inserció de sacàrids, prèviament estudiats en la literatura com a agents inductors de mesoporositat, i l'augment de la viscositat del gel de síntesi per a disminuir la dimensió del cristall final. No obstant això, la presència de sacàrids no va conduir a la formació d'un sistema mesoporós; la millora en l'accessibilitat va ser a causa de la disminució de la mida de partícula. Augmentant la viscositat del gel, també es va poder disminuir la mida mitjana dels cristalls i, en conseqüència, augmentar la superfície externa. Després de la modificació de les estructures estudiades amb l'objectiu d'obtenir una àmplia gamma de propietats, es va avaluar el seu rendiment fotocatalític mitjançant la reacció de ruptura de la molècula d'aigua. Hi semblava haver una relació tipus "volcà" entre el rendiment fotocatalític i la superfície externa. Segons la literatura revisada, aquest comportament podria explicar-se per l'equilibri entre l'augment dels centres actius disponibles i l'augment de les defectes en la superfície, els quals són centres potencials de recombinació. Pel que fa a la relació entre el rendiment fotocatalític i el valor de la band gap, de nou sembla existir una relació tipus "volcà". Segons la bibliografia revisada, es va trobar que amb la reducció del valor de band gap augmenta el nombre de fotons absorbits i, com a tal, s'espera que augmenti el rendiment. No obstant això, és necessari que les càrregues fotogenerades tinguin un potencial suficient per a participar en la reacció desitjada. Com a resultat, per sota d'un cert valor de band gap, les càrregues fotogenerades ja no tenen un potencial suficient i, per tant, el rendiment disminueix. De les diferents mostres provades, les modificades amb sacarosa van destacar per tenir el millor rendiment. Fins ara no ha estat possible desxifrar el fenomen darrere d'aquesta major reactivitat. Per tant, es requereix una caracterització més detallada d'aquestes mostres per a comprendre com la presència del component orgànic influeix en l'estructura electrònica del material i, en conseqüència, en el seu rendiment. També seria important avaluar l'estabilitat del component orgànic durant la reacció, específicament per a verificar que no patisca un procés d'oxidació que puga produir protons, que després siguen capaços de formar hidrogen. / [EN] The present doctoral thesis focused on the development and modification of metal sulfide based microstructured materials for the solar fuels production. Two new materials, IZM-5 and ITQ-75 made of tin and zinc sulfide, were obtained and characterized. Since it is intended to use such materials on solar-driven processes, it was necessary to fine tune their electronic structure, through a doping strategy, and their accessibility, through the modification of the synthesis gel composition or by post synthesis methods. Different doping agents, such as copper, cobalt, nickel and iron, as well as the insertion of a ruthenium complex were tested. The most successful ones were copper and cobalt, since with their presence it is possible to reduce the optical band gap value to 2,0 eV, a value within the optimal range of optical band gaps for solar fuel production processes. When such doping agents were present into the IZM-5 gel, it was found that the expected diffraction pattern was not obtained, but one of a new material, entitled ITQ-76. As with zeolites, the firsts attempts to allow accessibility to photoactive sites was about releasing the microporosity, the internal surface, by removing the organic structure directing agent used during the synthesis process. Because no strategy was successful, it was alternatively attempted to enhance the external surface (grain surface or mesoporosity). Of the different strategies tested, it was found that varying the gel composition was the most successful one. The insertion of saccharides, previously studied in the literature as mesoporosity agents, and increasing the synthesis gel viscosity in order to decrease the final crystal size were tested. However, the presence of saccharides did not lead to the formation of a mesoporous system. The improvement in accessibility was due to the decrease of particle sizes. By increasing the gel viscosity it was also possible to decrease the average size of the crystals and consequently increase the external surface area. After the modification of the structures under study in order to obtain a wide range of properties, their photocatalytic performance was evaluated by using the water splitting reaction. A volcano-like relationship seemed to exist between photocatalytic performance and the external surface area. According to the literature reviewed, this behavior might be explained by the balance between the increase of available active centers and the increase of surface defects which are potential recombination sites. Regarding the relation between the photocatalytic performance and the optical band gap value, again a volcano-like relationship seems to exist. According to the reviewed bibliography, it was found that with the reduction of the optical band gap value the number of absorbed photons increases and, as such, the performance is expected to increase. However, it is necessary that the photogenerated charges have a sufficient potential to participate in the desired reaction. As a result, below a certain optical band gap value, the photogenerated charges no longer have sufficient potential and, as such, the performance decreases. Of the different samples tested, those modified with sucrose stand out as having the best performance. So far it was not possible to unravel the phenomenon behind those enhanced reactivity. Hence, a more detailed characterization of these samples is necessary in order to understand how the presence of the organic component influences the electronic structure of the material and, consequently, its performance. It would also be important to assess the stability of the organic component during the reaction, more specifically to verify that it does not undergo an oxidation process that might produce protons, which are then able to form dihydrogen. / Silva Gaspar, B. (2024). Porous Sulfur-Based Materials for Photocatalytic Applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/202895

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<p> </p> <p>ndoor air quality (IAQ) due to the presence of airborne microorganisms or bioaerosols (0.01-10 μm) in indoor spaces has been a concern for many years; however, it gained significant attention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) has shown promising potential to kill microorganisms (removal/disinfection) and has already been in use within HVAC systems to treat volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (treatment). The main motivation of this work is to understand whether PCO devices can be used for bioaerosol removal in indoor spaces by integrating them with HVAC systems. Among the various factors that influence the adoption of PCO for large-scale bioaerosol removal, this work specifically tries to investigate two factors 1) whether the commercially available PCO reactors for treatment can be used for removal/disinfection or not, and 2) how to setup a standardized experimental setup for evaluating the removal efficiency of these systems. Generally, most of the commercial PCO devices use UV- based photocatalysis, so the removal efficiency is a combination of inactivation by UV and the reactive oxygen species produced by photocatalytic reactions (pure photocatalytic effect).</p> <p>In this work, the bioaerosol transport and the photon transport in a reactor is hypothesized as central to using the photocatalytic effect to inactivate microorganisms. This study uses analytical models to estimate the collection efficiency of the bioaerosols inside the honeycomb channels as a function of non-dimensional aspect ratios and velocity typical of HVAC systems. Subsequently, the collection efficiency results are overlaid with the prior literature results on photon transport inside such channels to present a limiting case for the removal efficiency of these systems. Another crucial factor for the performance of PCO systems is to investigate about the bioaerosol remediation on a photocatalyst substrate. Since there are many challenges associated with the numerical modeling of this phenomenon, this work developed a standardized experimental setup at the Herrick Laboratories, Purdue to investigate these interactions and further validate the previous hypothesis .The setup is constructed to systematically characterize the bioaerosol flowing through the airstream and measure data crucial to the PCO reactor performance, such as fluence rate field, number concentration (#/cm3), and viable concentration (CFU or PFU/m3) of the microorganisms upstream and downstream of the treatment sections. </p> <p>The collection efficiency (CE) of bioaerosols in honeycomb channels with velocities typical to HVAC systems were estimated using analytical models, and the results were presented in dimensionless aspect ratios (AR= Lch/ Dch). Based on the CE modeling results, the highest CE for aspect ratio 25 was less than 20% for the entire bioaerosol size range. From the prior literature results on photon transport, it was found that the intensity of the light reduced significantly for aspect ratios less than or equal to 6. Based on these results, it was found that the existing honeycomb geometries weren’t effective for PCO disinfection in operating conditions typical of HVAC systems. Since there aren’t any existing well-established methods to experimentally investigate these kinds of systems, this work will present the details about the development of the proposed methods inspired from prior literature for general air cleaning devices and small-scale PCO experiments. Furthermore, a detailed discussion about the important subsystems such as aerosol generation subsystem, sampling subsystem, and reactor subsystem which is crucial to investigating the hypotheses is presented in this thesis. Finally, some preliminary results on each of these characterization experiments to test the hypotheses has been presented in this thesis.</p>

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