La photocatalyse hétérogène est une technique d’oxydation utilisée pour l’élimination des Composés Organiques Volatils (COV). L’objectif est d’étudier la dégradation des COV initiaux et la production d’intermédiaires réactionnels lors de la mise en oeuvre de ce procédé dans des conditions proches de l’air intérieur (concentration des COV en mélange). TroisCOV modèles (toluène, décane, trichloréthylène) sont étudiés séparément puis en mélange dans un réacteurstatique puis dans un réacteur dynamique multi-pass. Les résultats obtenus montrent que (i) l’efficacité dedégradation dépend de la nature et du nombre de COV à traiter, des caractéristiques du média photocatalytiqueet des conditions opératoires, (ii) les intermédiaires majoritaires et les plus persistants sont les aldéhydeslégers, (iii) l’élimination des aldéhydes est inhibée lorsque les COV initiaux sont en mélange, (iv) l’augmentation du temps de résidence sur le matériau photocatalytique permet une élimination plus rapide des COV initiaux et des sous-produits. / Heterogeneous photocatalysis is a technique of oxidation used for the removal of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Aim is to study the degradation of initial VOCs and the production of reaction intermediates during this process in conditions close to the indoor air (VOC concentration in mixture). Three model VOCs (toluene, decane, trichloroethylene) are studied separately and then in mixture in a static reactor and in a dynamic multi-pass reactor. The obtained results show that (i) the degradation efficiency depends on the nature and the number of VOCs, on the photocatalyst characteristics and on process conditions, (ii) the major and the most persistent intermediates are light aldehydes, (iii) the elimination of aldehydes is inhibited when the initial VOCs are in mixture, (iv) increasing the residence time on the photocatalyst provides a higher removal rate of initial VOCs and of byproducts.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Kenneth J. Klabunde / Solar energy driven catalytic systems have gained popularity in environmental remediation recently. Various photocatalytic systems have been reported in this regard and most of the photocatalysts are based on well-known semiconducting material, Titanium Dioxide, while some are based on other materials such as Silicon Dioxide and various Zeolites. However, in titania based photocatalysts, titania is actively involved in the catalytic mechanism by absorbing light and generating exitons. Because of this vast popularity of titania in the field of photocatalysis it is believed that photocatalysis mainly occurs via non-localized mechanisms and semiconductors are extremely important. Even though it is still rare, photocatalysis could be localized and possible without use of a semiconductor as well. Thus, to support localized photocatalytic systems, and to compare the activity to titania based systems, degradation of organic air pollutants by nanostructured silica, titania and mixed silica titania systems were studied. New materials were prepared using two different approaches, precipitation technique (xerogel) and aerogel preparation technique. The prepared xerogel samples were doped with both metal (silver) and non-metals (carbon and sulfur) and aerogel samples were loaded with Chromium, Cobalt and Vanadium separately, in order to achieve visible light photocatalytic activity. Characterization studies of the materials were carried out using Nova BET analysis, DR UV-vis spectrometry, powder X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron Spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, etc. Kinetics of the catalytic activities was studied using a Shimadzu GCMS-QP 5000 instrument using a closed glass reactor. All the experiments were carried out in gaseous phase using acetaldehyde as the model pollutant. Kinetic results suggest that chromium doped silica systems are good UV and visible light active photocatalysts. This is a good example for a localized photocatalytic activity. In contrast, our xerogel system shows comparatively high visible light photocatalytic activity for the titania based system, showing the importance of non-localized nature of photocatalysis. The Cobalt doped silica system shows interesting dark catalytic activity towards acetaldehyde and several other pollutants. Thus, in summary, based on the different activities we observed during our studies these materials could be successfully used to improve the quality of both indoor and outdoor air.

Ce mémoire porte sur la synthèse de matériaux composites nanostructurés à base de polyoxométallates pour la conversion de l’énergie et des applications à des problèmes environnementaux. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, de nombreux composés nouveaux de cette famille d’oxydes moléculaires ont été synthétisés puis ont été associés à différentes matrices éco-compatibles dans le respect des principaux critères de la Chimie Verte. Les principales techniques d’étude sont l’électrochimie, la photochimie et la spectroscopie UV-visible. Dans le domaine de l’énergie, les catalyseurs obtenus se sont révélés très efficaces dans des réactions très importantes mais difficiles à réaliser, comme la production de l’hydrogène, la réduction de l’oxygène et l’oxydation de l’eau. De même, parmi les applications aux problèmes de dépollution, ces nanomatériaux ont montré une forte activité électrocatalytique et photocatalytique pour la réduction des oxydes d’azote, des bromates et la photodégradation d’un colorant textile toxique, l’Acide Orange 7. Les performances de ces nouveaux catalyseurs sont comparables à celles des meilleurs systèmes connus. / This thesis focuses on the synthesis of nanostructured composite materials based on polyoxometalates for energy conversion and applications to environmental problems. To achieve these goals, many new compounds of this family of molecular oxides were synthesized and were associated with different nature friendly matrices, in agreement with the main criteria of Green Chemistry. In the field of energy, the new catalysts have proved very effective in important but difficult to achieve reactions, such as producing hydrogen, oxygen reduction or water oxidation. Similarly, among applications to pollution problems, these nanomaterials have shown a strong electrocatalytic and photocatalytic activity for the reduction of nitrogen oxides, bromate and for the photodegradation of a toxic textile dye, Acid Orange 7. The performances of these new catalysts are comparable to those of the best known systems.

Ø / The dissertation is presented on 252 content pages which has been framed in five chapters and two annexures while the title page opens into a list of abbreviations followed by a foreword on the work. The core theme of the research work is to validate the extended photocatalytic properties of porphyrin-POM materials in evolving from UV to visible light range of solar spectrum. Which describing additional modes for synthesis of hybrid materials (i) electrostatic multilayer’s comprising of Dawson , sandwich Dawson type and preyssler,s POM in combination with free base tetracationic porphyrin [H₂TPhN(Me)₃P⁴⁺] (ii) an easy method of synthesis of two dimers with a pyridinium spacer (abbreviated 4-H₂–Zn and 3-H₂–Zn) (iii) Langmuir Schafer approach for hybrid monolayer. The prepared photoactive thin layers have been characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy for optical properties. Cyclic voltammetry for electrochemistry and ionic permeability studies. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) for surface morphology and its role in physical mechanism of reduction process and shape of nanostructures obtained. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has been used to interpret size and shape of dendritic silver nanoparticles obtained as photoreduction product. Although ,the ultimate goal is the photoreduction of heavy metals (Cr(VI), Hg(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) ), reduction of a simpler system like Ag⁺ ion has been chosen as a model system due to single electron simpler oxidation reduction process. A novel application of photocurrent generation from these hybrid films has been demonstrated in the fifth chapter of the manuscript as an initial studies which has enhanced the significance of all previously fabricated systems upto by many folds .The foresaid development of photovoltaic application has paved the way for future studies to enhance the photocurrent yield further by tuning the electron donor-acceptor system. Both components porphyrin and POM can be tuned with different axial substituent’s and stereo chemical properties to achieve maximum yield of solar energy as well as diversified metal nanostructure for nanoelectronics, e.g. silver dendrites for sensor applications. At the end of the manuscript, three appendices describe successively the experimental techniques used to carry out this work, the Job method used to determine the stoichiometry and formation constants of complex electrostatic and coordination, and then finally the origin or Protocols for the synthesis of various compounds used.

Os produtos lácteos são tidos como os alimentos mais perfeitos para o homem devido ao seu alto valor nutritivo. Entretanto, esses produtos vêm refletidos na elevada carga orgânica de efluente gerado. Os Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POA) são métodos químicos baseados na geração de radicais hidroxilas, que promovem a oxidação de compostos orgânicos. O uso de semicondutores no tratamento de efluentes tem sido de grande interesse devido à sua alta eficiência, estabilidade fotoquímica, natureza não-tóxica e baixo custo, especialmente quando a luz do sol é usada como fonte de irradiação. O uso de Óxido de Zinco (ZnO), por exemplo, além de mais econômico, absorve uma fração maior de espectro UV e tem melhor desempenho em pH neutro. Este estudo consistiu em avaliar a aplicação e eficiência da fotocatálise heterogênea (POA) solar com ZnO em termos de percentual de degradação de Carga Orgânica Total (COT) para um posterior tratamento biológico aerado visando melhorar as condições de despejo do efluente de modo a preservar o ecossistema e economia dos recursos naturais. O sistema POA consistiu de um volume fixo de efluente de 3L, de uma chapa metálica 800 x 250 mm revestida com uma formulação de tinta contendo ZnO, um reservatório de vidro, uma bomba centrífuga e aberto para absorção de radiações UV solar. Os resultados foram obtidos e analisados a partir do método de planejamento de experimentos em termos de percentual de degradação de COT. O melhor resultado apresentou um percentual de degradação de COT de 31,5% onde os níves das variáveis estudadas ocorreram em pH 8,0 em chapa de ZnO com espessura de 100 micrômetros (?m), utilizando o efluente in natura e o tempo total de reação de 3 h (180min). O efluente tratado pelo POA solar com ZnO foi submetido ao tratamento biológico aerado. O pH ótimo e a concentração de lodo foram de 6,0 e 5,0 mg/L, respectivamente. O percentual de degradação de COT para os tratamentos combinados foi de 75,1 % para o efluente de laticínios utilizado neste estudo. Isto sugere que o tratamento por POA utilizando ZnO seguido de um Tratamento Biológico Aerado seria uma alternativa promissora no tratamento de efluentes de laticínios. / Dairy products are the most perfect type of food for men due to its high nutritive value reflected on its high organic load of wastewater generated. The Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) are chemical methods based on the generation of hydroxyls radicals that promote the oxidation of organic compounds. The use of semiconductors in wastewater treatment has been of great interest owing to its high efficiency, photochemical stability, non-toxic nature and lower costs, especially when sunlight is used as source of irradiation. The use of Zinc Oxide (ZnO), for instance, besides being more economic, it also absorbs a greater range of UV spectrum and it has a better performance on neutral pH. This study consisted in evaluating the application and efficiency of solar photocatalytic oxidation (AOP) with ZnO in percentage terms of removal of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) prior to an aerobic biological treatment aiming to improve the conditions of the disposal of this wastewater in order to conserve the water environment and saving natural resources. The AOP system consisted of a working volume of 3 L, a sheet metal 800 x 250 mm covered with a paint formula containing ZnO, a glass vessel, a pump and an open system in order to collect solar UV radiation. The results were obtained and analyzed from design of experiments in terms of percentage of removal of TOC. The maximum percentage was found to be 31.5 % of removal of TOC and at pH 8.0, thickness of the sheet containing ZnO of 100 micrometers (?m), wastewater in natura and total time of reaction of 3 h (180 min). The solar AOP with ZnO treated wastewater was subjected to an aerobic biological treatment. The optimum pH and sludge loading were of 6.0 and 5.0 mg/L, respectively. The combination of both treatments resulted in 75.1 % of removal of TOC from the dairy wastewater used in this study. This suggests that the AOP using ZnO followed by an aerobic biological treatment would be a promising alternative for the treatment of dairy wastewater.

O objetivo desta Tese é preparar e caracterizar nanopartículas de TiO2 e SiO2@ TiO2 e obter filmes finos baseados nesses materiais nanoestruturados usando a metodologia de preparação de filmes conhecida como layer-by-layer (LbL). Primeiramente, TiO2 amorfo sintetizado a partir de sulfato de titanila (TiOSO4) foi cristalizado por método de tratamento hidrotérmico brando (HTT). O efeito da temperatura e tempo de tratamento hidrotérmico na cristalinidade, tamanho de partícula e fotoatividade de TiO2 foi estudado. A análise de MET, DRX e área de superfície confirmou que o HTT a temperatura tão baixa quanto 105°C pode ser utilizada para obter as nanopartículas de anatase com boa cristalinidade (~95%), pequeno tamanho de cristalito (<10 nm), alta área de superfície (>200 m2.g-1) e excelente seletividade da fase. Em uma segunda etapa do projeto, o nanocatalisador de TiO2 foi depositado, via rota sol-gel, na superfície de NPs de sílica Stöber (diâmetro 200 nm), formando um sistema core@shell (SiO2@ TiO2). O objetivo desse processo foi de se obter melhor estabilidade térmica (1000°C), boa dispersão e menor aglomeração do nanocatalisador (TiO2). As análises de microscopia eletrônica (MEV e MET) confirmaram a formação de uma camada porosa (espessura 10-30 nm) de TiO2 formadas por cristalitos com cerca de 5 nm. Um estudo das propriedades ópticas das amostras SiO2@ TiO2 mostrou que o deslocamento no onset de absorção é função do espalhamento Rayleigh. Finalmente, desenvolveu-se um novo e versátil procedimento LbL para a preparação de filmes multicamadas, porosos e uniformes de TiO2 empregando fosfato de celulose (CP) como polieletrólito eficiente e não convencional. A formação dos filmes (CP/ TiO2 e CP/ TiO2/HPW) foi monitorada por espectroscopia UV/Vis e a interação entre os componentes dos filmes (CP, TiO2 e HPW) foi estudada pelas técnicas MET, XPS e FTIR. Estes filmes LbL apresentaram boa fotoatividade para degradação de ácido esteárico, cristal violeta e azul de metileno sobre irradiação UV. Os filmes CP/HPW formados em celulose bacteriana apresentaram boa resposta fotocrômica, que é aumentada pela presença do TiO2 devido a uma transferência eletrônica interfacial do TiO2 para o HPW. A interface entre nanopartículas de titânia e nanopartículas de ácido fosfotungstico foi pela primeira vez caracterizada por Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão como sendo não-cristalina. Este método simples e ambientalmente amigável pode ser utilizado para formar recobrimentos em uma grande variedade de superfícies com filmes fotoativos de TiO2 e TiO2/HPW. / The aim of the present investigation was to prepare and characterize TiO2 and core@shell (SiO2@TiO2) nanoparticles (CSNs) and form layer-by-layer (LbL) films with these nanoparticles (NPs) on various substrates. Firstly, amorphous TiO2 were prepared from oxotitanium (IV) sulfate (TiOSO4) and crystallized by low-temperature hydrothermal treatment (HTT). The effect of hydrothermal temperature and treatment time on crystallinity, particle size and photoactivity of TiO2 was studied. The TEM, XRD and BET surface area analysis confirmed that HTT at temperature as low as 105°C can be used to obtain phase-pure anatase nanoparticles with good crystallinity (~95%), small crystallite size (<10 nm), high surface area (>200 m2.g-1) and excellent phase selectivity. Secondly, TiO2 nanocatalyst was directly deposited, via sol-gel route, on the surface of Stöber silica NPs of around 200 nm in a core@shell (SiO2@ TiO2) configuration to obtain better thermal stability, good dispersion and less agglomeration of the nanocatalyst. SEM and TEM observation confirmed the formation of a porous anatase shell of crystalline TiO2 consisting of around 5-8 nm small crystallites, in accordance with XRD results. The shell thickness was varied between 10-30 nm by varying the quantity of precursor titanium (IV) isopropoxide (TiP). Compared to the uncoated silica, the BET surface area also increased by 147-365% depending on the amount of TiP added during synthesis step. The effect of shell morphology and TiO2 loading on surface area and photoactivity has been studied and compared among different CSNs. Finally, a new and versatile LbL procedure for the preparation of porous and highly dispersed multilayer films of TiO2 and phosphotungstic acid (HPW) on different substrates was developed using Cellulose Phosphate (CP) as an efficient and non-conventional binder. The films formation was monitored by UV/Vis spectroscopy and the interaction between the films components (CP, TiO2 and HPW) was studied by HRTEM, XPS and FTIR techniques. These CP/ TiO2 and CP/ TiO2/HPW LbL films showed good photoactivity against stearic acid (SA), crystal violet (CV) and methylene blue (MB) under UV irradiation. The CP/HPW films formed on bacterial cellulose showed good photochromic response, which is enhanced in presence of TiO2 due to an interfacial electron transfer from TiO2 to HPW. This simple and environmentally safe method can be used to form coatings on a variety of surfaces with photoactive TiO2 and TiO2/HPW films.

A combinação de nanopartículas de dióxido de titânio com nanotubos de carbono de parede múltiplas possibilita a geração de um nanomaterial híbrido, com atividade fotocatalítica aprimorada, denominado TiO2-MWCNT. Existe um grande interesse científico e tecnológico em materiais fotocatalíticos, estes apresentam potencial para o desenvolvimento de novos agentes antimicrobianos, nanocompósitos, catalisadores e remediação ambiental. Apesar de muitos trabalhos enfatizarem os benefícios na utilização de nanohíbridos, ainda são escassos estudos de impactos ambientais e toxicidade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi sintetizar e caracterizar o nanohíbrido TiO2-MWCNT, bem como avaliar sua ecotoxicidade aquática através de ensaios in vivo (embriões de Zebrafish - Danio rerio) e in vitro (linhagem celular RTG-2 - fibroblastos de Oncorhynchus mykiss). O TiO2-MWCNT foi sintetizado pelo método mecanoquímico (moagem em estado sólido) e caracterizado empregando as seguintes técnicas: microscopia eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão, espectroscopia Raman, análise termogravimétrica, espalhamento dinâmico de luz e espalhamento de luz eletroforético. O nanohíbrido sintetizado apresentou atividade fotocatalítica aprimorada, confirmada através de ensaios de fotocatálise. Nos ensaios in vivo, o TiO2-MWCNT não apresentou ecotoxicidade aguda até 100 µg mL-1 (na presença ou ausência de radiação UV). No entanto, foi observada a ingestão do nanohíbrido pelos embriões (via oral) através da técnica microfluorescência de raios-X (µ-XRF). Também não foi observado ecotoxicidade para o nanohíbrido nos ensaios in vitro até 100 µg mL-1; porém foi verificado a capacidade de internalização celular deste material. Em geral, aspectos coloidais (agregação/aglomeração) e a formação de protein corona apresentaram importantes implicações para a determinação precisa da ecotoxicidade. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho suportam futuras aplicações do nanohíbrido TiO2-MWCNT na área de fotocatálise, e contribui de maneira proativa para sua avaliação ecotoxicológica / The combination of titanium dioxide nanoparticles with multiwall carbon nanotubes enables the generation of a hybrid nanomaterial with improved photocatalytic activity, called TiO2-MWCNT. There is great scientific and technological interest in photocatalytic materials, which present potential for the development of new antimicrobial agents, nanocomposites, catalysts and environmental remediation. Although many papers emphasize the benefits of using nanohybrids, there are still a small number of studies about its environmental impacts and toxicity. The objective of this work was to synthesize and characterize a TiO2-MWCNT nanohybrid. As well as to evaluate its aquatic ecotoxicity through in vivo (Zebrafish embryos - Danio rerio) and in vitro (RTG-2 cell line - Oncorhynchus mykiss fibroblasts) assays. TiO2-MWCNT was synthesized by the mechanochemical method (solid state milling) and characterized using the following techniques: scanning and transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, dynamic scattering light and electrophoretic scattering light. The synthesized nanohybrid showed enhanced photocatalytic activity, confirmed by photocatalysis studies. In the in vivo assays, TiO2-MWCNT did not show acute ecotoxicity up to 100 ?g mL-1 (in the presence or absence of UV radiation). However, the ingestion of the nanohybrid by the embryos (oral route) was observed through ?-probe X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (?-XRF). Also, no toxicity was observed in the in vitro assays up to 100 ?g mL-1; however, the cellular internalization capacity of this material was verified. In general, colloidal aspects (aggregation / agglomeration) and the formation of protein corona presented important implications for the precise determination of ecotoxicity. The results obtained in this work support future applications of the nanohybrid TiO2-MWCNT in the area of photocatalysis and contributes proactively to its ecotoxicological evaluation

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a otimização, via metodologia de superfície de resposta, da síntese de compósitos de nitreto de carbono grafítico e óxido de grafeno reduzido, por via úmida, para aplicação em fotodegradação de poluentes orgânicos, empregando-se como poluente-modelo o Bisfenol A (BPA) em meio aquoso e em concentrações ambientais (100 µg L-1). O nitreto de carbono foi obtido por pirólise da melamina, enquanto o óxido de grafeno reduzido foi obtido a partir do grafite por um método de Hummers modificado e posteriormente reduzido com hidrazina em refluxo após a impregnação em g-C3N4. A impregnação se baseou em auto-montagem por interação eletrostática via tratamento sonoquímico esfoliativo em pH 3,0, em que os materiais apresentam cargas opostas. Inicialmente, três fatores foram estudados para a formação dos compósitos: o teor mássico de óxido de grafite utilizado, o tempo de sonicação da mistura das suspensões dos materiais precursores esfoliados por ultrassom de ponteira e a quantidade de hidrazina utilizada para redução do óxido de grafeno. Para tanto realizou-se um planejamento inicial de dois níveis e três fatores com réplicas em todos os pontos. Após o ajuste de um modelo linear e de se determinar região ótima percorrendo-se o caminho de máxima inclinação, um Planejamento Composto Central foi utilizado para se otimizar a reação. A quantidade de hidrazina empregada não se mostrou estatisticamente significativa nos níveis estudados. As condições ótimas de síntese foram: 16% em massa de GrO, 8,5 min de sonicação da mistura. A hidrazina foi fixada em seu nível baixo (1:4 GrO em massa). A remoção do BPA chegou a aproximadamente 65% após 0,5 h de adsorção no escuro e 1 h de irradiação, utilizando-se 0,05 g L-1 do compósito. O material obtido com as condições ótimas foi aproximadamente 2,7 vezes mais ativo que o obtido com as condições encontradas na literatura. O sistema reacional apresentou baixas fotólise (3%) e adsorção no escuro (22%). Em termos texturais, o material obtido apresenta área superficial específica maior (86 m2 g-1) que a da matriz original de g-C3N4 (26 m2 g-1) sem o tratamento sonoquímico. Para o compósito otimizado, a estrutura lamelar do g-C3N4 foi preservada no compósito conforme os perfis dos difratogramas de pó. A superfície dos precursores e do compósito mostraram-se bastante puras. As análises de DRS mostraram que as propriedades de separação de carga do compósito não diferem muito do bandgap do g-C3N4 puro (2,7 eV). / The objective of this work was the optimization of the synthesis of grafitic carbon ni-tride and reduced graphene oxide composites by Response Surface Metodology for the photodegradation of organic pollutants, using bisphenol A as a model pollutant in aque-ous medium and environmental concentrations (100 µg L-1). Carbon nitride was ob-tained by pyrolysis of melamine, while the reduced graphene oxide was obtained from grafite by a modified Hummers method. The graphene oxide formed was later reduced by hydrazine in reflux after the impregnation in g-C3N4. The synthesis was based on a self-assembly via eletrostatic interaction and exfoliative sonochemical treatment at pH 3.0, condition in which the materials presented opposite charges. Initially three factors were studied for the composites fabrication: the graphite oxide mass content, the sonication period of the precursor mixture, which was exfoliated by a sonotrode and the amount of hydrazine used for reducing graphene oxide. An initial experimental design with two levels and three factors and replicas at all points was carried out. After determining a linear model and finding the optimum region along the path of steepest ascent, a Central Composite Design was performed to optmize the reaction. The amount of hydrazine employed was not statistically significant within the levels studied. The optimum conditions of syhthesis were 16% in mass of graphite oxide and 8.5 min of soni-cation of the mixture. Hydrazine was set at its low level (1:4 to GrO in mass). The BPA removal reached approximately 65% after adsorption (30 min in the dark) and 1 h of irradiation with 0.05 g L-1 composite. The obtained material according to the optimal conditions was approximately 2.7 times more active than the one obtained using the conditions found in the literature. The reaction system presented low photolysis (3%) and adsorption (22%). Texturally speaking, the obtained material had greater specific surface area (86 m2 g-1) than the original g-C3N4 matrix (26 m2 g-1). In textural terms, the g-C3N4 lamelar structure was preserved in the composite according to the powder dif-fractograms profiles. The surface of precursors and composite was quite pure. DRS analyses showed that the charge separation properties of the composite do not signifi-cantly differ from the pure g-C3N4 bandgap (2.7 eV).

Apesar de a fotocatálise heterogênea ser reconhecida como uma abordagem promissora e sustentável para promover processos de remediação ambiental, aplicações práticas de processos fotocatalíticos ainda são muito limitadas devido à baixa eficiência dos fotocatalisadores existentes. Neste contexto, a pesquisa na interface Química/Ciência dos Materiais é de grande relevância para o desenvolvimento de rotas sintéticas que permitam a obtenção e o controle das propriedades de novos fotocatalisadores multi-componentes visando desempenho fotocatalítico aprimorado. Os trabalhos descritos nesta tese abordam rotas sintéticas desenvolvidas ou aprimoradas para preparação de partículas e aerogéis nanoestruturados baseados na incorporação do fotocatalisador de alta atividade TiO2 em escala nanométrica junto à estruturas de sílica, que atuam como suporte estrutural de alta estabilidade térmica. Adicionalmente, os materiais sintetizados foram modificados com o hexacianometalato Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3, o Azul da Prússia (PB) como tentativa para aumento do desempenho fotocatalítico em reações de redução. A caracterização detalhada dos materiais foi realizada por amplo conjunto de técnicas visando correlacionar atividade fotocatalítica com propriedades físicas e estruturais. Na primeira etapa do trabalho partículas core-shell SiO2@TiO2 foram preparadas pela adsorção e hidrólise controlada do precursor Isopropóxido de Titânio na superfície de partículas submicrométricas de sílica. Variando a composição do solvente (razão isopropanol/etanol) foi possível controlar a cinética de deposição do TiO2, levando à controle sobre composição e morfologia das partículas SiO2@TiO2 sintetizadas. Este material apresentou eficiência de fotodegradação do corante Cristal Violeta superior a do TiO2 não-suportado, assim como elevada estabilidade térmica devido à formação de ligações interfaciais Si-O-Ti. Em uma segunda etapa, novas rotas de preparação de aerogéis de sílica-titânia foram desenvolvidas empregando TiCl4 como precursor alternativo aos alcóxidos de titânio e processamento dos materiais por secagem em CO2 supercrítico. Explorou-se a reação de termo-hidrólise do TiCl4 para promover a deposição termo-induzida de titania em géis monolíticos de sílica, bem como o método de gelificação assistida por epóxido para formação de rede tridimensional porosa de titânia ao redor de partículas de aerogel de sílica, levando à preparação de aerogéis core-shell SiO2@TiO2 e aerogéis nanocompósitos SiO2/TiO2, respectivamente. A estrutura mesoporosa robusta dos aerogéis e a capacidade da sílica de inibir a transformação de fase anatase-rutilo se refletiram em um aumento de atividade fotocatalítica com o aumento da temperatura de calcinação, sendo que os aerogéis de sílica-titânia tratados a 1000ºC apresentaram eficiência fotocatalítica superiores a dos aerogéis de titânia pura e do fotocatalisador comercial P25. Na parte final do trabalho, as partículas e aerogéis de SiO2/TiO2 e TiO2 foram modificados adicionalmente com o PB e com PB/MoS2 por métodos de fotodeposição. Demonstrou-se que o PB pode atuar como co-catalisador na reação de redução fotocatalítica de espécie altamente tóxicas de Cr(VI) em compostos não tóxicos de Cr(III), aumentando substancialmente a eficiência dos materiais baseados em TiO2 sobre radiação UV. Finalmente, a modificação concomitante dos fotocatalisadores com PB e o semicondutor MoS2 levam a aumento sinérgico de atividade redução fotocatalítica de Cr(VI) também sob luz visível. Os materiais desenvolvidos neste trabalho apresentam interessante potencial para aplicações em processos de remediação ambiental e desenvolvimento de revestimentos cerâmicos auto-limpantes. / Despite its potential as a promising and sustainable approach for environmental remediation, heterogeneous photocatalysis still has limited practical applicability due to the low efficiency of the existing photocatalysts. In this context, research on the Chemistry/Materials Science interface is of utmost importance for the development of synthetic routes that allow preparation of novel multi-component photocatalysts with controlled properties and enhanced photocatalytic performance. The studies reported in this thesis describe newly developed or improved synthetic routes for the preparation of nanostructured photocatalysts in the form of particles and aerogels through incorporation of highly photoactive TiO2 nanoparticles in silica materials as thermally stable structural supports. Additionally, the prepared silica-titania photocatalysts were further modified with Prussian Blue (PB), hexacyanometallate Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3, in order to enhance the efficiency of photocatalytic reduction reactions. In order to correlate the observed photocatalytic performance with the physical/structural properties of the photocatalysts, the prepared photocatalysts were characterized using an array of complimentary techniques. In the first part of the study, core-shell SiO2@TiO2 particles were prepared by the adsorption and controlled hydrolysis of titanium isopropoxide precursor on the surface of submicron silica particles. The rate of titania deposition and the resultant particle morphology as well as TiO2 loading could be effectively controlled by changing solvent composition (isopropanol/ethanol ratio). The prepared SiO2@TiO2 core-shell particles showed superior performance for crystal violet dye photodegradation as compared to unsupported TiO2, in addition to their improved thermal stability due to the formation of Si-O-Ti interfacial bonds. In the second part of thesis, new synthetic routes were developed for the preparation of high surface area silica-titania aerogels employing TiCl4 as an alternative titania precursor. We explored the thermohydrolysis of TiCl4 to promote thermo-induced deposition of titania on silica monolithic gels and epoxide-assisted gelation method for formation of titania gel network around silica aerogel particles, thus yielding SiO2@TiO2 core-shell and SiO2/TiO2 composite aerogels, respectively. The prepared silica-titania aerogels displayed remarkable physical properties, including high surface area, large pore volume and outstanding thermal stability of the supported anatase nanoparticles. The robust thermally stable mesoporous structure of the prepared aerogels, coupled with the ability of silica to inhibit anatase-to-rutile transformation, led to the enhancement of photocatalytic activity with an increase in annealing temperature to as high as 1000 ºC. In fact, the photocatalytic activity of silica-titania aerogels annealed at 1000 ºC outperforms that of both pristine titania aerogels and Degussa P25 commercial photocatalyst. In the final part of the study, the prepared TiO2-based particles and aerogels were further modified with PB and PB/MoS2 by photodeposition method. We could demonstrate that PB can act as an efficient co-catalyst for the photocatalytic reduction of highly toxic Cr(VI) species to the non-toxic Cr(III), thus largely improving the photocatalytic performance of TiO2-based photocatalysts under UV illumination. Finally, simultaneous modification of the titania-based photocatalysts with both PB and the visible-light active semiconductor MoS2 lead to a synergistic enhancement of photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) under visible-light as well. The photocatalytic materials developed in this study may find useful application in many areas such as environmental remediation, wastewater purification and the development of self-cleaning ceramic coatings.

Excessive CO2 emissions can negatively impact society and our planet. Reduction of CO2 is one potential avenue for its abatement. One of the most significant challenges to reducing CO2 is its extremely stable linear form. Experimentally, Cu/TiO2 has shown promise for CO2 photocatalytic reduction. Dispersed atomic catalysts can achieve high catalytic efficiency on a per atom basis. Active sites also typically having lower coordination number, and therefore may be more reactive. Using density functional theory and experimental techniques, we have investigated the role of surface oxygen vacancies (Ov) and photoexcited electrons on supported single atom catalysts and CO2 reduction. Cu atoms with Ov have shown to aid in the process of bent, anionic CO2 formation. In the first step involving CO2 dissociation (CO2* --> CO* + O*), a single Cu atom in Ov lowered the activation barrier to 0.10 - 0.19 eV, which could enable fast reduction of CO2 even at room temperature, in agreement with experimental findings. A photoexcited electron model was shown to readily promote Cu binding to the surface vacancy, and CO2 adsorption and direct dissociation. Finally, we briefly compare our results to calculations of supported single Pt atoms to determine how metals besides Cu may behave as photocatalysts for CO2 reduction, and we found a single Pt with Ov can promote CO2 dissociation. Our results show that tailoring TiO2 surfaces with defects in conjunction with atomic catalysts may lead to useful catalysts in the photoreduction of CO2.