Photoredox catalysis applications for the purpose of new synthetic routes in organic and sustainable chemistry are hot topics in organic synthesis today. In the present study, the synthesis of a chiral proline-based organocatalyst functionalized with 10-phenyl-10H phenothiazine (PTH) photocatalytic moietiesis investigated and attempted for the first time. PTH, an organic photocatalyst, isstudied for its photocatalytic activity in different organic reactions, such as dehalogenation of aromatic halides and the pinacol coupling reaction between aromatic aldehydes. These transformations are otherwise difficult to achieve without a suitable catalyst and the reactions were performed with moderate to high yields. / Applikationer av photoredox-katalys med syftet att generera nya syntetiska vägar inom organisk och hållbar kemi är populära ämnen i organisk syntes idag. I denna studien undersöktes för första gången syntesen av en kiral prolinbaserad organokatalysator som är funktionaliserad med fotokatalytiska enheter (10-fenyl-10H-fenotiazin (PTH)). Den fotokatalytiska aktiviteten av PTH studerades för olika organiska reaktioner, såsom t.ex. dehalogenering av aromatiska halider och pinacolkopplingar mellan aromatiska aldehyder. Dessa transformationer är annars svåra att uppnå utan en lämplig fotokatalysator och reaktionerna utfördes med måttliga till höga utbyten.

In this work we investigated fabrication of semiconductor nanomaterials and evaluated their potential for photo-chemical and photovoltaic applications. We investigated different II-VI semiconductor nanomaterial systems; (i) ZnO oriented nanowire arrays non-epitaxially grown from a substrate; and (ii) colloidal CdE (E=Te,Se,S) quantum structures synthesized by solution-based thermal decomposition of organo-metallic precursors. We have studied the synthesis of vertically aligned ZnO nanowire arrays (NWA), by a wet chemical process on various substrates. We have extended this method wherein nanofibers of poly-L-lactide act as a substrate for the radially oriented growth of ZnO nanowires. By combining the large surface area and the flexibility of the PLLA-ZnO hierarchical nanostructure we have shown the proof-of-principle demonstration of a ‘continuous-flow’ water treatment system to decompose known organic pollutants in water, as well as render common waterborne bacteria non-viable. We have studied synthesis of colloidal quantum dots (QD), and show size, morphology and composition tailored nanocrystals for CdE (E=S, Se, Te) compositions. We have studied the influence of crystal growth habits of the nanocrtsyals on the final morphology. Furthermore we have synthesized core-shell, CdSe-CdS QDs with spherical and tetrahedral morphologies by varying the reaction conditions. We show that these core-shell quantum dots show quasi-type II characteristics, and demonstrate with I-V measurements, the spatial localization of the charge carriers in these hetero-nanocrystals. For this purpose, we developed hybrid materials consisting of the core-shell quantum dots with electron acceptors (ZnO nanowires) and hole acceptors (polymeric P3HT nanofibers). In addition we have also compared the synthesis reaction when carried out with conventional heating and microwave-mediated heating. We find that the reaction is enhanced, and the yield is qualitatively better when using microwave induced heating. / QC 20120525

The objective of this thesis is to investigate the photocatalytic activity in nanosized TiO2 structures. Two different structures were used for two different reaction systems. In the first part of the study, TiO2 coated on glass beads by a sol-gel procedure were used to test the photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction with H2O and H2 in the gas phase. The results of photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction revealed that CO2 reduction step of the overall reaction proceeds in dark / while illumination is required for water splitting reaction. In the second part of the study, Photocatalytic oxidation activity of the commercial TiO2 powders mixed with grout and plaster were studied for a potential commercial self cleaning material. A method based on gas phase benzene oxidation was developed for testing TiO2 added cement based self cleaning surfaces. This method was used to screen 15 commercial TiO2 samples with and without cement. Based on this method a commercial TiO2 sample (S9) was selected for further use. Surface of 15 commercial TiO2 samples were characterized by using NO and CO2 as probe molecules. Photocatalytic benzene oxidation experiments showed that using TiO2 on the surface lead to more effective surfaces in terms of photocatalytic activity. TiO2 was bound to surface by inorganic materials without much activity loss. This kind of amount optimization is of commercial importance.

Despite extensive preventative efforts, the problem of controlling infections associated with biomedical materials persists. Bacteria tend to colonize on biocompatible materials and form biofilms; thus, novel biomaterials with antibacterial properties are of great interest. In this thesis, titanium dioxide (TiO2)-associated photocatalysis under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation was investigated as a strategy for developing bioactivity and antibacterial properties on biomaterials. Although much of the work was specifically directed towards dental materials, the results presented are applicable to a wide range of biomaterial applications. Most of the experimental work in the thesis was based on a resin-TiO2 nanocomposite that was prepared by adding 20 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles to a resin-based polymer material. Tests showed that the addition of the nanoparticles endowed the adhesive material with photocatalytic activity without affecting the functional bonding strength. Subsequent studies indicated a number of additional beneficial properties associated with the nanocomposite that appear promising for biomaterial applications. For example, irradiation with UV light induced bioactivity on the otherwise non-bioactive nanocomposite; this was indicated by hydroxyapatite formation on the surface following soaking in Dulbecco’s phosphate-buffered saline. Under UV irradiation, the resin-TiO2 nanocomposite provided effective antibacterial action against both planktonic and biofilm bacteria. UV irradiation of the nanocomposite also provided a prolonged antibacterial effect that continued after removal of the UV light source. UV treatment also reduced bacterial adhesion to the resin-TiO2 surface. The mechanisms involved in the antibacterial effects of TiO2 photocatalysis were studied by investigating the specific contributions of the photocatalytic reaction products (the reactive oxygen species) and their disinfection kinetics. Methods of improving the viability analysis of bacteria subjected to photocatalysis were also developed.

Bacteria are the oldest, structurally simplest, and most abundant forms of life on earth. Its detection has always been a serious question since the emerging of modern science and technology. There has been a phenomenal growth in the field of real-time bacteria detection in recent years with emerging applications in a wide range of disciplines, including medical analysis, food, environment and many more. Two important analytical functions involved in bacteria detection are cell lysis and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Cell lysis is required to break cells open to release DNA for use in PCR. PCR is required to reproduce millions of copies of the target genes to reach detection limit from a low DNA concentration. Conventionally, cell lysis and PCR are performed separately using specialized equipments. Those bulky machines consume much more than needed chemical reagents and are very time consuming. An efficient, cost-effective and portable solution involving Nanotechnology and Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) technology was proposed. The idea was to utilize the excellent antibacterial property of surface-functionalized nanoparticles to perform cell lysis and then to perform PCR on the same LOC system without having to remove them from the solution for rapid detection of bacteria. Nanoparticles possess outstanding properties that are not seen in their bulk form due to their extremely small size. They were introduced to provide two novel methods for LOC cell lysis to overcome problems of current LOC cell lysis methods such as low efficiency, high cost and complicated fabrication process. The first method involved using poly(quaternary ammonium) functionalized gold and titanium dioxide nanoparticles which were demonstrated to be able to lyse E. coli completely in 10 minutes. The idea originated from the excellent antibacterial property of quaternary ammonium salts that people have been using for a long time. The second method involved using titanium dioxide nanoparticles and a miniaturized UV LED array. Titanium dioxide bears photocatalytic effect which generates highly reactive radicals to compromise cell membranes upon absorbing UV light in an aqueous environment. A considerable reduction of live E. coli was observed in 60 minutes. The thesis then evaluates the effect of nanoparticles on PCR to understand the roles nanoparticles play in PCR. It was found that gold and titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce PCR inhibition. How size of gold nanoparticles affected PCR was studied as well. Effective methods were discovered to suppress PCR inhibition caused by gold and titanium dioxide nanoparticles. The pioneering work paves a way for the integration of nanoparticle cell lysis and LOC PCR for rapid detection of bacteria. In the end, an integrated system involving nanoparticle cell lysis and microchip PCR was demonstrated. The prototyped system consisted of a physical microchip for both cell lysis and PCR, a temperature control system and necessary interface connections between the physical device and the temperature control system. The research explored solutions to improve PCR specificity in a microchip environment with gold nanoparticles in PCR. The system was capable of providing the same performance while reducing PCR cycling time by up to 50%. It was inexpensive and easy to be constructed without any complicated clean room fabrication processes. It can find enormous applications in water, food, environment and many more.

Semiconductor metal oxides can be induced by light with proper wavelength resulting in oxidation and reduction reactions for the transformation of water and oxygen molecules into active radicals. With this method, it is possible to obtain self-cleaning surfaces and products having antimicrobial properties. The aim of this study is to develop semiconductor metal oxide thin films for multifunctional glass products and the characterization of photocatalytic self cleaning and antimicrobial properties. As semiconductor metal oxides / titanium dioxide (TiO2), tin oxide (SnO2) and their binary mixtures (TiO2-SnO2) are selected because of their abundancy, non toxic properties, stability and the ability of absorbing light close to visible range. Also the effect of metal dopants such as praseodymium (Pr), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag) and iron (Fe) was examined with these metal oxides. The colloidal solutions were synthesized by using sol-gel method in order to apply the developed method to industrial usage as applying on large surfaces. The glass substrates were coated with the colloidal solutions by dip coating and the dried samples were calcined under air flow. The best calcination condition for pure TiO2 coated thin film was determined as 400oC for 45 minutes. Surface characterization studies were performed by using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer for band gap measurement, CAM for contact angle measurement, SEM for surface morphology and tophology. The methylene blue adsorption tests were carried out and the effective surface area of the samples were predicted by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm of samples. The photocatalytic activities of the coated thin films were measured with the degradation of organic materials as red wine and methylene blue, and with the antimicrobial activity tests as counting the number of viable E.coli cells. 61.2% deactivation of methylene blue stain was achieved over SnO2 coated thin films while this was 22.1% over TiO2 coated thin films after irradiation for 180 minutes. The superior photocatalytic activity was observed with TiO2 samples doped with Pd and Ag ions. The TiO2-SnO2 coated samples performed limited photocatalytic activity which is less than the activity of SnO2 coated samples which was confirmed with surface area measurements as SnO2 coated samples had higher surface area (9.81 cm2/cm2) than TiO2-SnO2 coated samples. Surface area increased with increasing the amount of SnO2 and it was in the following order: SnO2 &gt / 80% SnO2 + 20% TiO2 &gt / 50% SnO2 + 50%TiO2 &gt / 35% SnO2 + 65%TiO2 &gt / 20% SnO2 + 80% TiO2 &gt / TiO2.

The objective of this study was to investigate photocatalytic water splitting over ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays. Synthesis of ordered nanotube arrays of titania, as a micron thick film on a titanium foil was accomplished by electrochemical anodization methods defined in the literature. Effect of two types of electrolyte (aqueous and organic) on the micro-morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Optimum anodization times for the TiO2 nanotube electrodes, synthesized in ethylene glycol electrolyte, were different for acidic and basic electrolytes. Optimum times were determined as 2 hours in acidic and 4 hours in basic solutions. An H-type cell was constructed using a two side anodized titanium foil aiming the photocatalytic, stoichiometric and separate evolution of H2/O2 from the splitting of water. Gas evolution was observed at a rate of approximately 1 mL/h in the anode and 0.5 mL/h in the cathode, which implied the reverse of the desired stoichiometry. As the surface was corroded in that experimental conditions, electrochemical properties of the synthesized films were investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) at milder conditions. CV showed the reduction of Ti4+ to Ti3+, beginning at -0.2 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Since the process is accompanied by proton intercalation to the oxide, non-annealed samples showed higher currents in that region. Non-annealed samples showed no photocurrent. Photocurrents obtained in this work, on the average 0.1-0.2 mA/cm2, were one order of magnitude lower than the similar studies in the literature.

Apatite was formed on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2) powders by a biomimetic process. The deposition was accomplished by immersing TiO2 powders in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h. SBF used throughout this study had calcium and phosphate ion concentrations 10 times greater than those of human blood plasma. Photocatalytic activity of the apatite-deposited TiO2 powders was investigated in terms of the decomposition of methylene blue solution under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. It has been shown that apatite deposition enhanced the photocatalytic activity of TiO2. The best photocatalytic performance was acquired on the powders that are immersed in SBF for 3 h. The time required for the complete degradation of methylene blue decreased from 3.5 h to 2 h upon immersion of powders in SBF for 3 h. Photochemical durability of poly(methyl methacrylate) increased when it was mixed with apatite-deposited TiO2 powders.

Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Erstellung, Anpassung und Anwendung einer Methode, die es über die Quantifizierung gebildeter OH-Radikale ermöglicht, sowohl den Einfluss verschiedener Materialmodifikationen (physikalisch dotierte Nanokatalysatoren bzw. Biokompositmaterialien) als auch die Auswirkungen von Matrixbestandteilen oder hydrochemischen Randbedingungen auf die photokatalytische Effizienz der Materialien zu untersuchen. Zudem wurde angestrebt, dass sich die Anwendbarkeit der Methode nicht nur auf die Photokatalyse beschränkt, sondern auch auf andere AOPs ausgeweitet werden kann. Des Weiteren wurde über die Umsetzung der Modellspurenstoffe Carbamazepin und Diclofenac die Wirksamkeit der Katalysatormaterialien untersucht. Anhand von Versuchen im Labormaßstab werden unter Anwendung der entsprechenden Methode zur Quantifizierung der OH-Radikale bisherige zugrundeliegende Hypothesen zur photokatalytischen Erzeugung von OH-Radikalen (Einfluss von pH und Oberfläche) überprüft und modifiziert. Dabei werden neue Ansätze zur Oberflächenabhängigkeit der OH-Radikalbildung in AOPs (EAOP Diamantelektrode, UV/VUV), die Effizienz von UV/VUV im Vergleich zu UVA-Photokatalyse, die Anwendung von S-Layer-Proteinen in photokatalytischen Biokompositmaterialien sowie eine photokatalytische Umsetzung von Carbamazepin unter Nutzung neuartiger Katalysatoren und Sonnenlicht untersucht. Mit Hilfe der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse ist es möglich, photokatalytisch aktive Materialien über die OH-Radikalbildungskapazität, als Basisprozess einer photokatalytischen Eliminierung von pharmazeutischen Wirkstoffen aus Wässern, mit Hinblick auf ihre Effizienz und Haltbarkeit zu untersuchen. Daneben bietet das erstellte Konzept zur analytischen Anwendung der OH-Radikalbestimmung neben der Gelegenheit für interessante Vergleiche diverser AOP-Systeme auch die Möglichkeit einer Charakterisierung und Optimierung der einzelnen AOPs. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Anwendung von nano-Biokompositmaterialien unter Verwendung von S-Layer-Protein zur Herstellung multifunktionaler photokatalytischer Beschichtungen vielversprechend ist. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit unterstreichen, dass die analytische Erfassung von Transformationsprodukten aus photokatalytischen bzw. oxidativen Umsetzungen im Allgemeinen von großer Bedeutung ist, jedoch allein nicht ausreicht, um hinreichend sichere Aussagen über eine mögliche Gefährdung für Mensch bzw. Ökosystem zu erhalten. / The current work was focused on the preparation, adaption and application of an analytical method for the determination of OH radicals for the comparison of the activity of different photocatalytic materials in relation to the material modification (i.e. physically doped nanomaterials or biocomposite materials) and the composition of the water matrix. Furthermore, the application of the OH radical assay should be extended on other AOPs. The degradation of the model compounds carbamazepine and diclofenac was examined to determine the efficiency of the novel photocatalysts. By using appropriate OH radical assays in laboratory scale experiments, present hypotheses in relation to the photocatalytic formation of OH radicals (i.e. influence of pH or surface) were examined and modified. New approaches on the formation of OH radicals with respect to the surface within AOPs (EAOP diamond electrodes or UV/VUV), the efficiency of UV/VUV in relation to photocatalysis using UVA irradiation, the application of S-layer proteins in biocomposite materials and the photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine applying novel photocatalysts and natural sunlight were examined. Based upon the findings, it was possible to compare photocatalytic materials regarding efficiency and stability by means of the capacity to form OH radicals as the base process for the oxidative degradation of pharmaceutical trace compounds. The analytical concept offers the possibility to compare different AOPs and to characterize or optimize a single AOP. Furthermore, it was shown that the implementation of nanoscale biocomposite materials using S-layer proteins for the preparation of multi-functional coatings for photocatalytic applications is promising. In addition, the current work confirmed that the examination of transformation products of photocatalytic treatment processes or other oxidative reactions is very important. However, the analytical characterization alone is not sufficient to predict potential hazards to human health or the ecosystem with adequate reliability.

Στην παρούσα διατριβή, παρασκευάστηκαν νανοκρυσταλλικά υμένια TiO2 και εναποτέθηκαν σε υπόστρωμα γυαλιού, με τη μέθοδο sol – gel παρουσία του τασιενεργού μορίου Triton X-100. Τα υμένια πυρώθηκαν στους 550ο C ώστε να καούν οι οργανικές ενώσεις, ενώ η εναπομένουσα ανόργανη δομή αποτελείται από νανοσωματίδια, με μεγάλη ειδική επιφάνεια, μεγαλύτερη από την αναμενόμενη για τόσο υψηλές θερμοκρασίες πύρωσης. Ο σχηματισμός των νανοκρυσταλλιτών οφείλεται στην αυτο – οργάνωση του τασιενεργού μορίου το οποίο δρα ως εκμαγείο των νανοσωματιδίων. Ο χαρακτηρισμός των υμενίων πραγματοποιήθηκε με πλήθος τεχνικών χαρακτηρισμού (UV-Vis, XRD, B.E.T, FTIR, AFM). Τα υμένια αποδείχθηκαν πολύ αποδοτικά για τη φωτοαποικοδόμηση διαφόρων χρωστικών και ιδιαιτέρως της Basic Blue 41, είτε στον αέρα είτε σε υδατικά διαλύματα. Τρεις διαφορετικοί τύποι χημικών δομών χρωστικών χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για τις μελέτες φωτοαποικοδόμησης: Basic Blue 41, Acid Orange 7 και Crystal Violet και έγινε σύγκριση του ρυθμού φωτοαποικοδόμησης των. Μια πολύ μικρή ποσότητα TiO2 (154 mg/l) είναι αρκετή ώστε να αποχρωματίσει αραιά διαλύματα της χρωστικής μέσα σε λίγες ώρες, ακόμα και με φωτοβόληση της επιφάνειας του καταλύτη με λαμπτήρες πολύ χαμηλής ισχύος (0.7 mW/cm2) υπεριώδους ακτινοβολίας. Ο καταλύτης μπορεί εύκολα να αναγεννηθεί και να επαναχρησιμοποιηθεί για διαδοχικούς κύκλους φωτοκατάλυσης, χωρίς μείωση της φωτοκαταλυτικής του δραστικότητας. Τέλος, εναποτέθηκαν λεπτά υμένια, σε υπόστρωμα υάλου, τόσο από καθαρό όσο και από εμπλουτισμένο TiO2 με ιόντα μετάλλων. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν προσμίξεις, σε ένα μεγάλο εύρος συγκεντρώσεων, ιόντων μετάλλων Fe3+, Cr3+ και Co2+ και πραγματοποιήθηκε σύγκριση της φωτοκαταλυτικής τους δραστικότητας στον αποχρωματισμό υδατικών διαλυμάτων χρωστικών. Η παρουσία των προσμίξεων οδήγησε σε σταδιακή μείωση της κρυσταλλικότητας του TiO2, σε μετατροπή του ανατάση σε ρουτήλιο και, στην περίπτωση του Co2+, στο σχηματισμό μικτού οξειδίου CoTiO3. H καταστροφή του ανατάση είχε δραματικές επιπτώσεις στη φωτοκαταλυτική δραστικότητα του TiO2 κατά τη φωτοβόληση με UV – Vis, η οποία μειωνόταν με την αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης των προσμίξεων. Η φωτοβόληση του εμπλουτισμένου TiO2 με καθένα από τα τρία αυτά ιόντα, μόνο με ορατό φως, οδήγησε μεν στον αποχρωματισμό της χρωστικής αλλά με πολύ μικρότερο ρυθμό από ότι με το ορατό - υπεριώδες. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, αποδεικνύεται ότι η άμεση φωτοδιέγερση του καθαρού TiO2 αποτελεί μια πιο αποδοτική διαδικασία από τη διέγερση εμπλουτισμένου TiO2 στο ορατό. / Transparent nanocrystalline titania films have been deposited on glass slides by using sol-gel procedures carried out in the presence of the surfactant Triton X-100. Films were calcined at 550 oC to ensure destruction of all organic residues but they still retained structures that consist of small nanoparticles and very high active surface areas, larger than expected for such high heating temperatures. Nanocrystallites are formed due to surfactant self organization that acts as a template. Characterization of the films has been made by various techniques (UV-Vis, XRD, B.E.T, FTIR, AFM). These films are very efficient for photodegradation of various dyes, especially the Basic Blue 41, either in air or in aqueous solutions. Three different chemical structures of dyes were used for photodegradation in aqueous solutions: Basic Blue 41, Acid Orange 7, and Crystal Violet and their photodegradation rates have been compared. A very low load of TiO2 (154 mg/l) is capable of bleaching dilute solutions in only a few hours by shining black light of 0.7 mW/cm2. An inexpensive and simple reactor of cylindrical symmetry was described which employs a 4 W black-light tube as light source. The catalyst can be easily recovered and can be repeatedly used without loss of efficiency. Finally, thin films of pure or doped nanocrystalline titania have been deposited on glass slides by using the same sol-gel procedure, in order to compare their photocatalytic activity for photodegradation of aqueous solution of dyes. Fe3+, Cr3+ and Co2+ were used as dopants while the doping extended in a broad domain from very low to very high levels. The presence of dopants resulted in a progressive loss of total crystallinity, some transition from anatase to rutile and, in the case of Co2+, formation of the mixed oxide cobalt titanate. Loss of anatase had dramatic consequences on photocatalytic efficiency by UV-Vis excitation, which decreased fast by increasing dopant concentration. Selected visible excitation of the doped titania could lead to photodegradation of the dye but to a far lesser degree than UV-Vis excitation. In any case, direct UV excitation of pure titania is a more efficient photocatalytic process than visible excitation of doped titania.