Células-tronco embrionárias (CTE) são importantes para estudos de desenvolvimento embrionário, diferenciação e manipulação genética. Além disso, essas células podem ser utilizadas na terapia celular e organogênese in vitro. Na pesquisa sobre terapia celular a partir de CTE oriundas de embriões humanos, considerações éticas, morais e religiosas têm sido feitas por pesquisadores e leigos. Portanto, um modelo animal como o suíno (Sus scrofa) será bastante válido por transpor tais barreiras, visto que o suíno possui parâmetros fisiológicos semelhantes aos humanos. Apesar do alto potencial biomédico das CTE, existem dificuldades na manutenção da pluripotência in vitro dessas células em suínos. Portanto, estudos que visam elucidar os mecanismos de manutenção da pluripotência de CTE in vitro são necessários para viabilizar o cultivo dessas células. Os objetivos do presente estudo foram (1) isolar células-tronco embrionárias suínas a partir de blastocistos produzidos in vitro e in vivo; (2) comparar dois sistemas de cultivo in vitro das massas celulares internas (MCI) isoladas, MEF ou Matrigel e (3) identificar e comparar a expressão dos fatores de transcrição Nanog, Sox2 e FoxD3 em CTE e blastocistos suínos produzidos in vitro e in vivo. Assim, blastocistos suínos foram produzidos in vitro a partir da maturação e fecundação in vitro de oócitos de ovários obtidos em matadouro. Os embriões foram cultivados in vitro por 7 dias, até atingirem o estágio de blastocisto. Blastocistos suínos também foram produzidos in vivo, através de superovulação seguida de inseminação artificial de marrãs com 150 dias de idade. Para a colheita dos embriões, foi realizada lavagem dos cornos uterinos post-mortem cinco dias após a ovulação. Tanto blastocistos produzidos in vitro quanto os produzidos in vivo foram submetidos à imunocirurgia para isolamento da MCI. Brevemente, a zona pelúcida foi digerida com solução de pronase e os embriões incubados com soro de coelho anti-suíno para remoção das células do trofoectoderma e soro complemento de cobaia. A MCI resultante foi cultivada em meio para células-tronco (GMEM acrescido de 15% SFB, 0,1 mM ß-mercaptoetanol, 1% aminoácidos não essenciais e 4 ng/mL de bFGF) sobre monocamada de fibroblastos fetais murinos (MEF) inativados por radiação ou sobre Matrigel. Não foi observada diferença entre os dois sistemas de cultivo in vitro (MEF e Matrigel) na adesão das MCI isoladas. Também não foi verificada diferença entre os grupos de blastocistos, produzidos in vitro e in vitro, nas taxas de adesão das MCI cultivadas. Contudo, nenhuma colônia de CTE suínas foi obtida. A análise da expressão gênica em blastocistos produzidos in vitro e in vitro demonstrou que os genes Nanog e Sox2 são menos expressos em blastocistos produzidos in vitro. Contudo, a expressão do gene FoxD3, demonstrada pela primeira vez em suínos no presente trabalho, se mostrou semelhante entre os dois grupos de embriões. Visto que nenhuma linhagem de CTE legítima foi isolada em suínos até o momento, sugere-se que esta espécie possua requerimentos diferentes dos já conhecidos para as espécies murina e humana. Portanto, novos estudos são necessários para o estabelecimento de protocolos mais efetivos para o isolamento de CTE de suínos. / Embryonic stem cells (ESC) represent a useful tool to study embryonic development, cell differentiation and genetic manipulation. Moreover, these cells can be applied in cell-based therapies and in vitro organogenesis. The research conducted with human ESC has generated many ethical, moral and religious considerations by scientists and laymen alike. Therefore, an animal model like the pig (Sus scrofa) is valuable by overcoming such hurdles, since this species holds physiologic parameters similar to humans. In spite of the high biomedical potential of ESC, many difficulties have been faced to maintain these cells in a pluripotent state in vitro. For this reason, studies to elucidate the mechanisms of in vitro maintenance of undifferentiated ESC are needed to improve the culture of these cells. The objectives of this study were (1) to isolate ESC from in vitro and in vitro produced swine blastocysts, (2) to compare two in vitro culture conditions to maintain isolated inner cell masses (ICM), MEF or Matrigel and (3) to identify and to compare the expression of the pluripotency markers Nanog, Sox2 and FoxD3 at ESC and in vitro and in vitro produced swine blastocysts. In this manner, swine blastocysts were obtained by in vitro maturation and fertilization of oocytes from ovaries collected in abattoirs. Embryos were in vitro cultured for 7 days until blastocyst stage. In addition, in vitro produced blastocysts were obtained by superovulation followed by artificial insemination of gilts (150 days of age). Embryos were collected by post-mortem uterus flushing five days after ovulation. in vitro and in vitroproduced blastocysts were submitted to immunosurgery to isolate the ICM. Briefly, zona pellucida was digested with pronase solution and embryos were incubated with anti-swine rabbit serum to remove trophoectoderm cells and with guinea-pig complement serum. The resultant ICM was cultured in stem cells media (GMEM added by 15% SFB, 0.1 mM ß-mercaptoethanol, 1% non essential amino acids and 4 ng/mL of bFGF) over monolayer of irradiated murine fetal fibroblasts (MEF) or Matrigel. No difference was observed between the in vitro culture conditions (MEF and Matrigel) on isolated ICM adhesion. In addition, no difference was verified between in vitro and in vitro produced blastocysts on adhesion of cultured ICM. However, no swine ESC was obtained. Gene expression analysis of in vitro and in vitro produced blastocysts showed that Nanog and Sox2 are less expressed in in vitro produced blastocysts. However, the expression of FoxD3, demonstrated in this study for the first time, was similar between groups. Since no ESC lineage was obtained in swine until now, we believe this species have different requirements compared to murine and human. Therefore, more studies are necessary to establish protocols to isolate porcine ESC.

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) play an important role in locomotion. Counterbalance between two MSN subtypes, enkephalin-positive and substance P-positive MSNs, is crucial for maintaining normal movement. Preferential degeneration of enkephalinergic MSNs in early stage Huntington’s disease (HD) contributes to abnormal involuntary movement called chorea. The reasons for this selective vulnerability are unknown. In vitro differentiation of pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) to neuronal cells is considered a potential approach for modelling neurodegenerative disorders including HD. Generation of PSC-derived enkephalinergic MSNs would be an ideal tool for dissecting their preferential degeneration. However, an enkephalinergic phenotype has never been reported in PSC-derived MSNs. We, therefore, have generated a mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC) reporter line that expresses enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) when the cells are committed to an enkephalinergic fate. Characterisation of this mESC line via chimaera generation showed that all EYFP-positive cells were also enkephalin-positive. We have then optimised an enkephalinergic neuronal differentiation protocol using this ESC line. Interestingly, we found that a combination of Wnt inhibitor Dickkopf-related protein 1 (DKK1), sonic hedgehog (Shh) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), commonly used in addition to basal medium for deriving MSNs from PSCs, had a detrimental effect on enkephalin expression. Absence of these three factors, surprisingly, did not reduce the potential of ESCs to become MSNs nor did it affect the electrophysiological properties of ESC-derived MSNs. Further investigation revealed that Pre-pro-enkephalin is down-regulated in the presence of exogenous DKK1 and/or Shh but not in the presence of BDNF. We, therefore, propose that addition of exogenous DKK1 and Shh is unfavourable to derive enkephalinergic MSNs from mouse ESCs. These findings could be used to derive enkephalinergic MSNs in vitro allowing the disease in a dish approach for HD modelling.

Les cellules souches embryonnaires humaines (CSEh), par leurs caractéristiques de pluripotence et de prolifération illimitée, représentent une alternative à l’utilisation de cellules issues de patients : leur différenciation en cellules épithéliales respiratoires pourrait permettre la production illimitée d’épithélium pour le criblage de molécules thérapeutiques.L’objectif de notre travail a été de mettre au point un protocole simple et financièrement acceptable afin de différencier les CSEh en cellules épithéliales de voies aériennes et de produire un épithélium complet. Pour ce faire, nous avons suivi deux voies potentielles de différenciation des CSEh : une voie passant par la production d’endoderme définitif, feuillet embryonnaire à l’origine de l’épithélium respiratoire, et une voie passant par un progéniteur potentiel commun aux lignages respiratoire et épidermique. Différentes combinaisons de protéines matricielles, d’inducteur de différenciation, de temps d’induction et de milieux de culture ont été testées. Nos résultats montrent que la culture des CSEh sur cellules nourricières STO dans un milieu optimisé pour les cellules bronchiques, le BEGM, en présence de Bone Morphenetic Protein 4 et d’acide rétinoïque pendant 6 jours puis en BEGM seul pendant 30 jours conduit à l’obtention de plus de 76% de progéniteurs épithéliaux respiratoires exprimant des marqueurs spécifiques tels que CK13, P63, CXCR4, FOXA2, SOX17, NKX2.1, SOX2 et SOX9. Le passage par la production de cellules de l’endoderme définitif n’a pas permis d’améliorer l’efficacité de ce protocole. L’isolement de ces progéniteurs et la reconstitution d’un épithélium complet restent à mettre au point. / Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), for to their characteristics of pluripotency and unlimited proliferation, represent an alternative to the use of primary cells from patients: their commitment and differentiation into airway epithelial cells could help to overcome the lack of patient’s cells and could allow the unlimited production of epithelium for the screening of therapeutic molecules.The objective of our work was to develop a simple and financially acceptable protocol to differentiate hESCs into airway epithelial cells and to produce a complete epithelium. To do this, we followed two potential routes of hESC differentiation: a route through the production of definitive endoderm, the germ layer at the origin of the respiratory epithelium, and a route through a common potential progenitor to the respiratory and epidermal lineages. Various combinations of matrix proteins, differentiation inducers, induction time and culture media were tested.Our results show that hESC culture on STO feeder cells in an optimized medium for human bronchial epithelial cells, the BEGM medium, in the presence of Bone Morphenetic Protein 4 and retinoic acid for 6 days then in BEGM medium alone for 30 supplementary days led to the differentiation of more than 76% of respiratory epithelial progenitors expressing specific markers such as CK13, P63, CXCR4, FOXA2, SOX17, NKX2.1, SOX2 and SOX9. The application of these culture conditions to definitive endoderm cells, previously obtained from hESC, failed to improve the effectiveness of this protocol. The isolation of these progenitors and the reconstruction of a complete airway epithelium remain to be developed.

No description available.

Les cellules souches embryonnaires (ES) sont des cellules pluripotentes, capables de s'auto-renouveller indéfiniment dans des conditions de culture appropriées. Cela signifie que ces cellules restent dans un état prolifératif et indifferencié en culture et ont le potentiel de se différencier dans les trois feuillets embryonnaires, à savoir l'ectoderme, le mésoderme et l’endoderme, et leurs dérivés. Cette capacité à se différencier dans tous les types cellulaires, souligne la diffculté à contrôler la différenciation des cellules ES in vitro et à les guider vers un lignage spécifique. Mon projet de thèse porte sur la différenciation des cellules ES murines. Une étape importante du développement embryonnaire est le choix entre l’ectoderme et le mésendoderme. Dans ce but, j'ai développé une lignée ES qui permet de suivre exclusivement l'expression de Brachyury (T) dans le mésendoderme à l'exclusion de la notochorde: la lignée TRepV. Pour cela, jai cloné un fragment de 1 kb du promoteur murin de Brachyuryen amont du rapporteur Venus (YFP). Avant d'utiliser cette lignée, j’ai cherché à la valider. Malheureusement l'expression du rapporteur TRepV ne reproduit pas fidèlement l'expression endogène de T. Une hypothèse est que le fragment de 1kb ne contient pas tous les éléments de régulation de T nécessaires pour expression fidèle in vitro. De manière surprenante, j’ai observé que le rapporteur TRepV est exprimé de façon hétérogène dans les cellules ES non différenciées. Au cours de mon travail de thèse, je me suis intéressée à cette expression hétérogène. J'ai montré que les cellules ES TRepV+ représentent une sous-population distincte des cellules souches, qui peut être maintenue séparément exprimant le rapporteur de manère stable, à la difference d'autres gènes exprimés de manière hétérogène dans les cellules ES. Nous avons trouvé un marqueur d'une population distincte parmi les cellules ES et de nouveaux gènes impliqués dans pluripotence, qui seront abordés dans des études futures. / Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are a powerful system to investigate developmental processes in vitro, and a promising tool to generate specific cell types for cellular therapies and regenerative medicine. ESCs are self-renewing, pluripotent cells, maintaining a proliferative and undifferentiated state in culture, while retaining the capacity to differentiate into the three embryonic lineages: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and all their derivatives. Here, I established a primitive streak specific Brachyury/T Reporter ESC line (TRepV) to investigate early ESC differentiation. In contrast to previously published Tknock-in line, we established a transgene T ESCs reporter line, in order to avoid the disruption of the T locus, which may result in a hapoinsuficient phenotype. During the validation process, I observed discrepancies in expression between the TRepV and the endogenous T locus. I followed upon these observations with a more detailed analysis and obtained evidence that T is regulated differently in the ESC system compared to in vivo development. Against expectations, I also observed heterogeneous expression of the TRepV reporter in undifferentiated ESCs. Undifferentiated ESCs were found to be a mix of TRepV+ and TRepV- cells. This finding became the focus of my studies: I found TRepV+ cells represent a distinct population of ESCs with a unique identity. Unlike other heterogeneous ESC populations (such as Stella or Nanog), TRepV+ cells do not interconvert in their fate and represent an explicit, stable subpopulation of ESCs. Finally, I performed a microarray analysis of TRepV+ and TRepV- ESCs and identifed new genes which may be involved in the regulation of self-renewal and pluripotency.

Self-renewal of mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells is dependent upon the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). LIF induces tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) which is thought to promote self-renewal by inducing key target genes. The molecular chaperone heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is involved in signal transduction pathways and regulates STAT3 activity in different cell types. However, the role of Hsp90 in regulating STAT3 activity in mES cells has not previously been investigated. The aim of this study was to investigate if Hsp90 interacts with STAT3 in mES cells and to determine if this interaction is important for the maintenance of self-renewal. It was found that when mES cells were cultured for 24.0 hours in the absence of LIF, the expression levels of total STAT3, tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT3 (pYSTAT3), and the pluripotency marker, Nanog, were down regulated. However, the expression level of Hsp90 was found to be slightly up-regulated over the same period. Significantly, it was found that the amount of STAT3 in differentiating mES cells available for binding to Hsp90 was decreased upon down-regulation of STAT3 by LIF withdrawal. Therefore, STAT3-Hsp90 interactions in mES cells were dependent on the presence of LIF, which suggested that the reduction in STAT3-Hsp90 interaction may have resulted from the low levels of STAT3. Despite a dramatic reduction in the expression levels of pYSTAT3 upon 24.0 hours of culture of mES cells in the presence of the STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation inhibitor, cucurbitanin I, there was no obvious reduction in the levels of total STAT3, Oct-3/4 or Nanog. These results suggested that the levels of unphosphorylated STAT3 rather than pYSTAT3, maybe more important in the maintenance of mES cells self-renewal.

Epigenetic differences between maternally inherited and paternally inherited chromosomes, such as CpG methylation, render the maternal and paternal genome functionally inequivalent, a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. This functional inequivalence is exemplified with imprinted genes, whose expression is parent-of-origin specific. The dosage of imprinted gene expression is disrupted in cells with uniparental disomy (UPD), which is an unequal parental contribution to the genome. I have derived mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell sub-lines with maternal UPD (mUPD) for mouse chromosome 6 (MMU6) to characterize regulation and maintenance of imprinted gene expression. The main finding from this study is that maintenance of imprinting in mitotic UPD is extremely variable. Imprint maintenance was shown to vary from gene to gene, and to vary between ES cell lines depending on the mechanism of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in that cell line. Certain genes analyzed, such as Peg10, Sgce, Peg1, and Mit1 showed abnormal expression in ES cell lines for which they were mUPD. These abnormal expression levels are similar to that observed in ES cells with meiotically-derived full genome mUPD (parthenogenetic ES cells). Imprinted CpG methylation at the Peg1 promoter was found to be abnormal in all sub-lines with mUPD for Peg1. Two cell sub-lines which incurred LOH through mitotic recombination showed hypermethylation of Peg1, consistent with the presence of two maternal alleles. Surprisingly, a cell sub-line which incurred LOH through full chromosome duplication/loss showed hypomethylation of Peg1. The levels of methylation observed in these sub-lines correlates with expression, as the first two sub-lines showed a near-consistent reduction of Peg1, while the latter showed Peg1 levels close to wild-type. Altogether these results suggest that certain imprinted genes, like Peg1 and Peg10, have stricter imprinting maintenance, and as a result show abnormal expression in UPD. This strict imprint maintenance is disrupted, however, in UPD incurred through full chromosome duplication/loss, possibly because of the trisomic intermediate stage which occurs in this mechanism. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medical Genetics, Department of / Graduate

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) have been a useful tool in the study of the embryo development and could be used by drug developing companies to create disease models and assist in the production of new medicines. One of the models that has been studied before, is the development of the pancreas. Scientists have obtained mixed results so far in the generation of functional pancreatic  cells from hESCs. We studied the differentiation potential of hESCs. As purinergic signalling is involved in may physiological processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation, a study of purinergic signalling in hESCs would help us deeper understand the hESC physiology. In order to study the purinergic profile of hESCs we established a culture system that allowed the transfer and attachment of pluripotent hESC colonies on glass coverslips. We then studied the functional purinergic profile of hESCs and found that they do not express functional P2X1 receptors, but they do express functional P2Y6 receptors, which might be implicated in the hESC differentiation. In parallel to these studies, we developed a reporter gene lentivirus, where the mouse Pdx-1 promoter area controlled the expression of a reporter fluorochrome, eGFP. We managed to generate a functional lentivirus, however, further analysis is needed in order to be able to use it in developmental studies. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that glucose affects the differentiation of hESCs towards pancreatic endoderm. Our preliminary results suggested that glucose does affect the differentiation potential of hESCs.

The Hedgehog (Hh) signalling pathway is one of the key signalling pathways orchestrating intricate organogenesis, including the development of neural tube, heart and skeletal muscle. Yet, insufficient mechanistic understanding of its diverse roles is available. Here, we show the molecular mechanisms regulating the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Hh signalling, via effector protein Gli2, in embryonic and adult stem cells. In Chapter 2, we show that Gli2 induces neurogenesis, whereas a dominant-negative form of Gli2 delays neurogenesis in P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells, a mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell model. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gli2 associates with Ascl1/Mash1 gene elements in differentiating P19 cells and activates the Ascl1/Mash1 promoter in vitro. Thus, Gli2 mediates neurogenesis in P19 cells at least in part by directly regulating Ascl1/Mash1 expression. In Chapter 3, we demonstrate that Gli2 and MEF2C bind each other’s regulatory elements and regulate each other’s expression while enhancing cardiomyogenesis in P19 cells. Furthermore, dominant-negative Gli2 and MEF2C proteins downregulate each other’s expression while imparing cardiomyogenesis. Lastly, we show that Gli2 and MEF2C form a protein complex, which synergistically activates cardiac muscle related promoters. In Chapter 4, we illustrate that Gli2 associates with MyoD gene elements while enhancing skeletal myogenesis in P19 cells and activates the MyoD promoter in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of Hh signalling in muscle satellite cells and in proliferating myoblasts leads to reduction in MyoD and MEF2C expression. Finally, we demonstrate that endogenous Hh signalling is important for MyoD transcriptional activity and that Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Thus, Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD participate in a regulatory loop and form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Our results provide a link between the regulation of tissue-restricted factors like Mash1, MEF2C and MyoD, and a general signal-regulated Gli2 transcription factor. We therefore provide novel mechanistic insights into the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Gli2 in vitro, and offer novel plausible explanations for its in vivo functions. These results may also be important for the development of stem cell therapy strategies.

One of the major drawbacks of using stem cell therapy to treat muscular dystrophies is the challenge of isolating sufficient numbers of suitable precursor cells for transplantation. As such, a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved during muscle development, which would increase the proportion of embryonic stem cells that can differentiate into skeletal myocytes, is essential. In conditional SOX7-/- mice, we observed that the loss of SOX7 in satellite cells resulted in poor differentiation and fusion. In vivo, we observed fewer Pax7+ satellite cells in the mice lacking SOX7 as well as smaller muscle fibers. RT-qPCR data also revealed that Pax7, MRF and MHC3 transcript levels were down-regulated in SOX7 knockdown mice. Surprisingly, when SOX7 was over-expressed in embryonic stem cells, we found that there was a defect in making muscle precursor cells, specifically a failure to activate Pax7 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that SOX7 expression is required for the proper regulation of skeletal myogenesis.