Målet är att identifiera och ge fullständiga åtgärdsförslag på energieffektiviseringar för att minskaenergianvändningen med 25 % och därmed uppnå kraven för Green Building. De fullständigaåtgärdsförslagen ska redovisa ekonomi-, miljö- och hälsoaspekter.För att uppnå syftet med examensarbetet har ett konsekvent tillvägagångssätt använts för attidentifiera potentiella energieffektiviseringar för Smaland Airport. Med hjälp av den bakomliggandestudien ”Energieffektiviseringar Smaland Airport 2010-2011” analyserades kartläggningen avflygplatsens system och processer.Den totala energibesparingen för Smaland Airport uppgår till 646,1 MWh eller 22,04 % vilket fallerinom ramen för Sveriges klimatmål med en sänkt energianvändning på 20 % fram till och med 2020från 2008 års nivå. För att uppnå denna besparing krävs investeringar på 2,78 Mkr. Den årligareduceringen av koldioxid som fås av föreslagna energieffektiviseringar uppgår till 49,53 ton. Dengenomsnittliga pay-off tiden för investeringarna är 7,6 år vilket visar på attenergieffektiviseringsarbetet på Smaland Airport anses vara ekonomiskt försvarbart sett från ettlångsiktigt perspektiv.Energibesparingen som Green Building baseras på uppgår till 556MWh eller 23,15 % vilket inte ärtillräckligt för att klara huvudmålet på 25 % som krävs för att få fastigheten Green Buildingcertifierad. För att lyckas med huvudmålet krävs det att fler energieffektiviseringar identifieras och genomförs. / The goal is to identify and provide complete proposals for actions on energy efficiency to reduceenergy usage by 25 % and thus achieve the requirements for Green Building. The proposals shallaccount for economic, environmental as well as health aspects.To meet the objective of the thesis a consistent approach was used to identify potential energyefficiency of Smaland Airport. With help of the underlying study "Energy Efficiencies of SmalandAirport, 2010-2011" the airport's systems and processes were surveyed and analyzed.The total energy savings of Smaland Airport amounting to 646.1 MWh or 22.04% which falls withinthe framework of Sweden's climate goals with a lower consumption of 20% until 2020 from 2008levels. The requested investment to achieve these savings amounts to 2.78 million crowns. Theannual reduction of carbon dioxide obtained by the proposed energy efficienciesamounts to 49.53 tonnes. The average pay-off period for proposed investments is 7.6 years whichindicates that the energy efficiency work at Smaland Airport is considered to be economicallyjustified, as seen from a long term perspective.Energy savings from green building based on the amount to 556MWh or 23.15% is not enough tomeet the primary objective of 25% which is required to obtain property Green Building certified. Toachieve the main goal requires more energy efficiency measures identified and implemented.

Cooperative transmission involves the simultaneous transmission by a group of devices, alldevices sending the same data. The devices may use sidelink (SL) to share data prior to thejoint transmission. Cooperative transmission helps improve network coverage since it can usethe combined transmission power of all devices in a group, whereas single-hop transmissionby one device is limited to its own maximum uplink power. Cooperative transmission aim is toimprove the network coverage of devices involved. The cooperative transmission solutioncomprisestwo steps. The first step is when a device (source device) in the group wants to senddata in the UL and then transmits data via SL to the devices in a created group. In the secondstep, all users simultaneously transmit the data in the UL to the base station the group isassigned to.This master thesis studies both the performance in the uplink (UL), comparing cooperativewith direct transmission, and how to reduce the power consumption of the devices involvedin the cooperative transmission.A power consumption model was developed to analyze the energy consumption, both viaanalytical and simulations methods. The analytical results show that cooperative transmissioncan reduce energy consumption by 7% compared to direct transmission. An algorithm wasproposed for cooperative transmission, which helps reduce energy consumption by 31%.Furthermore, the performance of cooperative transmissions was also studied using a systemsimulator. The results shows that the UL total bit rate increases with cooperative transmissionand is proportional to the number of users in the group. The total bit rate increased by 57%for a group with five users and for a group of 10 the increase was 107% (with a carrierfrequency of 3GHz). Different scenarios were simulated, and the increase in total bit ratevaries from 50-150%. Cooperative transmission involves the simultaneous transmission by a group of devices, alldevices sending the same data. The devices may use sidelink (SL) to share data prior to thejoint transmission. Cooperative transmission helps improve network coverage since it can usethe combined transmission power of all devices in a group, whereas single-hop transmissionby one device is limited to its own maximum uplink power. Cooperative transmission aim is toimprove the network coverage of devices involved. The cooperative transmission solutioncomprisestwo steps. The first step is when a device (source device) in the group wants to senddata in the UL and then transmits data via SL to the devices in a created group. In the secondstep, all users simultaneously transmit the data in the UL to the base station the group isassigned to.This master thesis studies both the performance in the uplink (UL), comparing cooperativewith direct transmission, and how to reduce the power consumption of the devices involvedin the cooperative transmission.A power consumption model was developed to analyze the energy consumption, both viaanalytical and simulations methods. The analytical results show that cooperative transmissioncan reduce energy consumption by 7% compared to direct transmission. An algorithm wasproposed for cooperative transmission, which helps reduce energy consumption by 31%.Furthermore, the performance of cooperative transmissions was also studied using a systemsimulator. The results shows that the UL total bit rate increases with cooperative transmissionand is proportional to the number of users in the group. The total bit rate increased by 57%for a group with five users and for a group of 10 the increase was 107% (with a carrierfrequency of 3GHz). Different scenarios were simulated, and the increase in total bit ratevaries from 50-150%.

Sensor nodes are deployed over sensing fields for the purpose of monitoring certain phenomena of interest. The sensor nodes perform specific measurements, process the sensed data, and send the data to a base station over a wireless channel. The base station collects data from the sensor nodes, analyses this data, and reports it to the users. Wireless sensor networks are different from traditional networks, because of the following constraints. Typically, a large number of sensor nodes need to be randomly deployed and, in most cases, they are deployed in unreachable environments; however, the sensor nodes may fail, and they are subject to power constraints. Energy is one of the most important design constraints of wireless sensor networks. Energy consumption, in a sensor node, occurs due to many factors, such as: sensing the environment, transmitting and receiving data, processing data, and communication overheads. Since the sensor nodes behave as router nodes for data propagation, of the other sensor nodes to the base station, network connectivity decreases gradually. This may result in disconnected sub networks of sensor nodes. In order to prolong the network¿s lifetime, energy efficient protocols should be designed for the characteristics of the wireless sensor network. Sensor nodes in different regions of the sensing field can collaborate to aggregate the data that they gathered. Data aggregation is defined as the process of aggregating the data from sensor nodes to reduce redundant transmissions. It reduces a large amount of the data traffic on the network, it requires less energy, and it avoids information overheads by not sending all of the unprocessed data throughout the sensor network. Grouping sensor nodes into clusters is useful because it reduces the energy consumption. The clustering technique can be used to perform data aggregation. The clustering procedure involves the selection of cluster heads in each of the cluster, in order to coordinate the member nodes. The cluster head is responsible for: gathering the sensed data from its cluster¿s nodes, aggregating the data, and then sending the aggregated data to the base station. An adaptive clustering protocol was introduced to select the heads in the wireless sensor network. The proposed clustering protocol will dynamically change the cluster heads to obtain the best possible performance, based on the remaining energy level of sensor nodes and the average energy of clusters. The OMNET simulator will be used to present the design and implementation of the adaptive clustering protocol and then to evaluate it. This research has conducted extensive simulation experiments, in order to fully study and analyse the proposed energy efficient clustering protocol. It is necessary for all of the sensor nodes to remain alive for as long as possible, since network quality decreases as soon as a set of sensor nodes die. The goal of the energy efficient clustering protocol is to increase the lifetime and stability period of the sensor network. This research also introduces a new bidirectional data gathering protocol. This protocol aims to form a bidirectional ring structure among the sensor nodes, within the cluster, in order to reduce the overall energy consumption and enhance the network¿s lifetime. A bidirectional data gathering protocol uses a source node to transmit data to the base station, via one or more multiple intermediate cluster heads. It sends data through energy efficient paths to ensure the total energy, needed to route the data, is kept to a minimum. Performance results reveal that the proposed protocol is better in terms of: its network lifetime, energy dissipation, and communication overheads.

Wireless sensor network (WSN) technology has gained significant importance due to its potential support for a wide range of applications. Most of the WSN applications consist of a large numbers of distributed nodes that work together to achieve common objects. Running a large number of nodes requires an efficient mechanism to bring them all together in order to form a multi-hop wireless network that can accomplish some specific tasks. Even with recent developments made in WSN technology, numbers of important challenges still stand as vulnerabilities for WSNs, including energy waste sources, synchronisation leaks, low network capacity and self-configuration difficulties. However, energy efficiency remains the priority challenging problem due to the scarce energy resources available in sensor nodes. These concerns are managed by medium access control (MAC) layer protocols. MAC protocols designed specifically for WSN have an additional responsibility of managing radio activity to conserve energy in addition to the traditional functions. This thesis presents advanced research work carried out in the context of saving energy whilst achieving the desired network performance. Firstly the thesis contributes by proposing Overlapped Schedules for MAC layer, in which the schedules of the neighbour clusters are overlapped by introducing a small shift time between them, aiming to compensate the synchronisation errors. Secondly, this thesis proposed a modified architecture derived from S-MAC protocol which significantly supports higher traffic levels whilst achieving better energy efficiency. This is achieved by applying a parallel transmission concept on the communicating nodes. As a result, the overall efficiency of the channel contention mechanism increases and leads to higher throughput with lower energy consumption. Finally, this thesis proposed the use of the Adaptive scheme on Border Nodes to increase the power efficiency of the system under light traffic load conditions. The scheme focuses on saving energy by forcing the network border nodes to go off when not needed. These three contributions minimise the contention window period whilst maximising the capacity of the available channel, which as a result increase network performance in terms of energy efficiency, throughput and latency. The proposed system is shown to be backwards compatible and able to satisfy both traditional and advanced applications. The new MAC protocol has been implemented and evaluated using NS-2 simulator, under different traffic loads and varying duty cycle values. Results have shown that the proposed solutions are able to significantly enhance the performance of WSNs by improving the energy efficiency, increasing the system throughput and reducing the communication delay.

Polymer extrusion is an energy intensive process whereby the simultaneous action of viscous shear and thermal conduction are used to convert solid polymer to a melt which can be formed into a shape. To optimise efficiency, a homogeneous melt is required with minimum consumption of process energy. In this work, in-process monitoring techniques have been used to characterise the thermal dynamics of the single screw extrusion process with real-time quantification of energy consumption. Thermocouple grid sensors were used to measure radial melt temperatures across the melt flow at the entrance to the extruder die. Moreover, an infrared sensor flush mounted at the end of the extruder barrel was used to measure non-invasive melt temperature profiles across the width of the screw channel in the metering section of the extruder screw. Both techniques were found to provide useful information concerning the thermal dynamics of the extrusion process; in particular this application of infrared thermometry could prove useful for industrial extrusion process monitoring applications. Extruder screw geometry and extrusion variables should ideally be tailored to suit the properties of individual polymers but in practise this is rarely achieved due the lack of understanding. Here, LDPE, LLDPE, three grades of HDPE, PS, PP and PET were extruded using three geometries of extruder screws at several set temperatures and screw rotation speeds. Extrusion data showed that polymer rheology had a significant effect on the thermal efficiency on the extrusion process. In particular, melt viscosity was found to have a significant effect on specific energy consumption and thermal homogeneity of the melt. Extruder screw geometry, set extrusion temperature and screw rotation speed were also found to have a direct effect on energy consumption and melt consistency. Single flighted extruder screws exhibited poorer temperature homogeneity and larger fluctuations than a barrier flighted screw with a spiral mixer. These results highlighted the importance of careful selection of processing conditions and extruder screw geometry on melt homogeneity and process efficiency. Extruder scale was found to have a significant influence on thermal characteristics due to changes in surface area of the screw, barrel and heaters which consequently affect the effectiveness of the melting process and extrusion process energy demand. In this thesis, the thermal and energy characteristics of two single screw extruders were compared to examine the effect of extruder scale and processing conditions on measured melt temperature and energy consumption. Extrusion thermal dynamics were shown to be highly dependent upon extruder scale whilst specific energy consumption compared more favourably, enabling prediction of a process window from lab to industrial scale within which energy efficiency can be optimised. Overall, this detailed experimental study has helped to improve understanding of the single screw extrusion process, in terms of thermal stability and energy consumption. It is hoped that the findings will allow those working in this field to make more informed decisions regarding set conditions, screw geometry and extruder scale, in order to improve the efficiency of the extrusion process. / Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council

This thesis considers the problem of implementation of Model Predictive Control (MPC) strategies in the general area of Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning (HVAC). Specifically, the contributions utilize the constraint handling and optimality properties of MPC to achieve energy efficient control of many different HVAC systems. First, the thesis focuses on a linear offset-free MPC design for a vapor compression cycle. The key contributions include a a sequential tuning method and application to a detailed simulation test-bed, demonstrating superior closed-loop results to that of traditional control strategies in the presence of both disturbances and measurement noise. Next, a modified linear offset-free MPC formulation is implemented on a heat pump. The key contribution is the formulation of an optimization problem that recognizes the tradeoff between energy conservation and tracking performance. Simulation results illustrate superior performances as measured through three separate metrics: safety, energy efficiency and tracking. The implementation of MPC formulations to these realistic problems also pointed to a lack of MPC formulations with explicit performance considerations in the control design. Thus, in the final part of the thesis, these observed shortcomings in the standard offset-free linear MPC design are addressed via a new performance specification-based MPC. Desired closed-loop output response is specified and achieved through a tiered optimization formulation that can handle plant model mismatch. Superior closed-loop response, in terms of desired transient behavior and disturbance rejection, relative to standard linear-based and offset-free MPC designs is achieved. Finally, directions for future work are discussed. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Исследование влияния отопительных систем и конструктивных особенностей на энергетическую и экономическую эффективность индивидуальных жилых зданий. / The most effective variant of a heating system and a constructive system for increasing the energy and economic efficiency of an individual residential building are proposed.

<p dir="ltr">Building cooling and ventilation account for nearly 10% of the global electricity consumption. In fact, a recent study even showed that, globally, dehumidification consumes more energy than sensible cooling. One high-efficiency dehumidification technology is selective membrane dehumidification. Selective membranes allow water vapor transport but block air transport. There are two overarching gaps in the literature that are addressed in this dissertation: (1) vacuum membrane dehumidification (VMD) has been rigidly defined as an isothermal process and (2) literature on one of the most efficient VMD system designs, which I will refer to as the “dual module humidity pump,” is limited to ideal thermodynamic modeling (no experimental demonstration or practical system modeling in the current literature).</p><p dir="ltr">This work presents a novel system concept, referred to as the “Active Membrane Energy Exchanger” (AMX), which specifically couples VMD and air cooling into one process to provide the first non-isothermal VMD system concept. The present study provides a wholistic understanding of the benefits and limitations of the AMX approach through both thermodynamic system modeling and experimental protype development and demonstration.</p><p dir="ltr">System models developed in Engineering Equation Solver were used to compare the energy performance of the AMX to other HVAC technologies. These models showed that the AMX could achieve up to 25% annual cooling electricity savings in commercial buildings and up to 60% annual cooling electricity savings in 100% outdoor air applications. Experiments showed that combining cooling and dehumidification increased membrane permeance by up to 40% and increased dehumidification performance by 3-6%. Further demonstration showed the prototype could remove up to 45% of the humidity in the humid air flow but struggled to reject all of that vapor to the exhaust air (mass transfer imbalance). This discovery enabled a practical thermofluid model to estimate theoretical and practical COP limits, which were approximately 40 and 10, respectively. Additionally, a global sensitivity analysis on the new model showed that mechanical design is far more limiting to the performance than material design.</p><p dir="ltr">In summary, this dissertation develops and demonstrates a novel air conditioning technology, from system modeling to prototype demonstration. This work was funded and guided by industry partners, and the results of this dissertation are a major step towards real-world implementation.</p>

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Energy efficiency is a growing field that concerns more and more companies, individuals as well as governments in order to reduce costs and use less energy for a more sustainable development. Engie is no exception and values energy efficient projects. In this paper will be documented three energy efficiency related projects that I carried out during my five month end of studies internship. This work spans different topics, the parallel operation of hydraulic distribution pumps, the modeling of an heat exchangers as well as pid calculations for a dedicated ehating network. We delve into the technical aspect of each subject before introducing the tools developed, with some of their results. / Energieffektivisering är ett växande område som berör allt fler företag, privatpersoner såväl som myndigheter för att minska kostnaderna och använda mindre energi för en mer hållbar utveckling. Engie är inget undantag och värdesätter energieffektiva projekt. I den här artikeln kommer tre energieffektivitetsrelaterade projekt att dokumenteras som jag genomförde under min fem månder långa praktikperiod. Detta arbete spänner över olika ämnen, parallelldrift av hydrauliska distributionspumpar, modellering av en värmeväxlare samt pid-beräkningar för ett dedikerat värmenätverk. Vi fördjupar oss i den tekniska aspekten av varje ämne innan vi introducerar de utvecklade verktygen, med några av deras resultat.