Groundnut production is vital to the Senegalese agricultural economy, particularly in the Groundnut Basin. However the region is increasingly affected by climate change and associated rising temperatures. This study investigates long-term changes in the frequency of extreme temperatures in the Groundnut Basin and the impact of extreme temperatures on groundnut production. The current economic costs of extreme temperatures on groundnut farmers and potential future additional economic costs associated with climate change are then calculated. The study uses a two-year panel dataset from 1,123 households in the Groundnut Basin and weather data from meteorological stations and the ERA5 climate database. Results identify a significant increasing trend in extreme temperatures across the Groundnut Basin and a negative relationship between extreme temperatures and groundnut yield. This leads to financial losses for farmers, with adaptation strategies such as input level adjustments providing partial mitigation. Future projections indicate further increases in extreme heat degrees days, resulting in significant yield losses by 2050. But the implications of extreme heat also extend beyond agriculture, affecting human habitation and exacerbating societal inequalities. The findings highlight the potential long-term effects of increasing temperatures on agricultural practices in the Groundnut Basin and underscore the need for adaptation and mitigation strategies to cope with the impacts of climate change. / Master of Science / Groundnut production plays an important role in Senegal's agricultural economy, particularly in the Groundnut Basin. However, the region is facing growing challenges due to climate change and rising temperatures. This study examines the long-term changes in extreme temperatures in the Groundnut Basin and their impact on groundnut production. By analyzing data from 1,123 households and temperature records, the study calculates the current economic costs of extreme temperatures on groundnut farmers and predicts potential future costs associated with climate change. The findings reveal a significant increase in extreme temperatures across the Groundnut Basin, which has a negative effect on groundnut yields. As a result, farmers face financial losses. However, they are employing adaptation strategies, such as adjusting input levels, to partially mitigate these losses. In the future, projections indicate that extreme heat will continue to rise, leading to substantial yield losses by 2050. But the implications of these findings also go beyond agriculture, impacting human settlements and exacerbating existing societal inequalities. The study emphasizes the potential long-term consequences of increasing temperatures on groundnut farming in the Groundnut Basin and highlights the urgency of implementing adaptation and mitigation strategies to address the impacts of climate change.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

The Government of Senegal is attempting to liberalize the groundnut market. In the past, this market was highly regulated with government-set producer prices, groundnut oil processing mills owned by parastatals, and requirements that all groundnuts be sold to these quasi-governmental organizations. In recent years, these rules are being relaxed, and farmers are allowed to sell groundnuts on the open market. However, farmers continue to sell most of their groundnuts, as before, to the mills. This study attempts to shed light on the effects of this market liberalization. First, an attempt is made to provide estimates of the farmers' short-run output supply and input demand responses to price changes. A quadratic profit function model is estimated using data collected for the current study and a similar dataset collected by Akobundu [1997]. Second, a quadratic programming model is used to examine the effects of eliminating pan-territorial prices. Results indicate that the elimination of the pan-territorial price system will have an overall benefit to Senegalese society. However, as expected, groundnut producers in areas remote from the groundnut oil processing mills would face lower prices. The effects on producers and consumers in the major producing regions, however, were found to be minimal. Finally, the dissertation provides an extensive description of the economic activities of small-scale farm households in Senegal's Groundnut Basin. Differences between males and females and between household heads and other males in the household are also examined. Although females are not as involved in groundnut production, they do not seem to face discrimination in either the official or the open market. The description of the situation facing small-scale farmers provided in this dissertation is not encouraging. The quantity and timing of the rains in the Groundnut Basin add an unwelcome uncertainty to farming. Increases in population are adding pressure to the environment and are placing heavy demands on wood and grazing lands. Only eight percent of the farmers had groundnut seed multiplication ratios less than one, and sixty-seven percent had ratios less than five. The dissertation also indicates that farmers are not producing enough to feed their families. Fewer than twelve percent of the households produce a caloric surplus. Sixty percent produced less than fifty percent of their caloric needs. The study indicates that farmers are not earning enough from agricultural production to take care of normal expenses throughout the year. Thus, when combined with uncertain rains and a worsening environment, the farmers have little margin of safety. Therefore, any government policies affecting groundnut production in particular or agricultural production in general should take into account the situation already facing the farmers. / Ph. D.

Situated on the western edge of Africa's harsh Sahel region, Senegal faces a number of agricultural production constraints. Limited rainfall, poor soil fertility, and insufficient agronomic inputs all contribute to low yielding millet production systems. This study was initiated to assess the potential for intercropping either cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) or mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) into traditional pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) cropping systems. During the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons two varieties of cowpea (upright and viney), and one variety of mungbean (upright) were grown in monoculture and subsequently intercropped with millet to evaluate the potential for increasing millet and overall yields. Millet was also planted with a mulch (2 t/ha of neem leaves) to test the effectiveness of increased ground cover on millet yields. In addition to yield data, soil moisture and plant NDVI data were also collected. Millet grain yields increased when intercropped with either cowpea or mungbean compared to millet that was grown alone, with grain yield increases of up to 55%. Additionally, the combined grain yields (millet + bean) were up to 67% higher than the traditional monoculture millet. The addition of mulch was the most effective treatment and increased millet grain yields up to 70%. Soil moisture increased up to 14% in mulched treatments over millet monoculture treatments. All yield increases were achieved without the addition of fertilizers or nutrient amendments. In an attempt to mimic local practices our experiment was rainfed and no soil amendments were introduced. / Master of Science

This study assesses the research benefits of IPM technologies and management practices aimed at reducing the virus problem in tomatoes in West Africa. Surveys are conducted with producers, extension agents, scientists, and other experts to obtain information and economic surplus analysis is used to project benefits over time. The determinants of adoption are assessed using a probit model. Results show that adoption of the host-free period reduced the amount of insecticide sprays by 71% and the production cost by $200/ha in Mali. The cost-benefit analysis indicated that the use of virus-tolerant seeds generated profits ranging from $1,188 to $2,116/ha in Mali and from $1,789 to $4,806/ha in Senegal. The likely factors influencing adoption of the technologies in both countries are the frequency of extension visits, farmer's field school training, gender, education, seed cost, tomato area, and experience in tomato losses. The benefits in the closed economy market vary from $3.4 million to $14.8 million for the host-free period, $0.5 million to $3 million for the virus-tolerant seeds, and $4.8 million to $21.6 million for the overall IPM program. In the same order, the benefits under the open economy market range from $3.5 million to $15.4 million, $0.5 million to $3million, and $5 million to $24 million. The distribution pattern indicates that producers gain one-third and consumers two-thirds of the benefits. Our results support policies aiming to increase the adoption rate or the expected change in yield. / Master of Science

Millets are C4 annual grasses that are mainly used for food and feed. This thesis describes two studies that evaluated drought tolerance of pearl millet cultivars (Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br) grown for grain. A third study is also included in the thesis that evaluated foxtail millet (Setaria italica [L] Beauv) and pearl millet grown as cover crops and forage during a pasture renovation. The main focus of the thesis involved evaluation of Senegalese pearl millet cultivars for drought tolerance. Drought is one of the most important threats to pearl millet production in Senegal as it limits yield in most parts of the country. Although water stress on pearl millet is common during the growing season, a little is known about how terminal drought affects yield in Senegalese pearl millet cultivars. To address this issue, two field experiments were conducted in 2014 and 2015. The first field study evaluated 20 pearl millet cultivars under water stress and categorized based on their yield response. Whereas the second year field trial used four cultivars from the first field trial in a more detailed study to give recommendations for farmers in Senegal. The experiments were complete randomized block designs. Pearl millet cultivars were grown under irrigation until flowering then the stress treatment was applied by stopping the irrigation in half of the plots. Eleven cultivars showed a statistical indifference to water stress and considered the most drought tolerant. Four cultivars were selected from the 11 for the second year experiment. Of these, cultivar 4 (ICMV IS 89305) and 10 (SOSAT c 88) exhibited higher tolerance to terminal water stress based on evaluation of yield components and drought stress indices. These cultivars could be a good target for further breeding and selection in Senegal. Although the cultivars were more drought tolerant, both had relatively low total biomass. When used in a larger scale, these cultivars could potentially benefit farmers in Senegal and enhance food security. The second part of this thesis addressed use of a forage type millets – specifically foxtail and pearl millet. In the US, these millets are primarily serve as a summer cover crops that can be used for forage. The objective of this experiment was to compare yield and forage quality of foxtail and pearl millet cover crops and their effect on subsequent pasture establishment. A field experiment was conducted in Virginia in 2014 to address this objective. Pearl millet and foxtail millet were randomly planted in 12 plots each and harvested in late summer. Plots were then converted to tall fescue (Schedonorus phoenix (Scop.) Holub) pasture. Foxtail millet had a significantly higher soil cover than pearl millet but the two species did not differ in terms of total biomass, forage quality, or their effect on tall fescue pasture establishment. / Master of Science

With a rapidly growing world population and increased threats of climate change, Sub-Saharan Africa is most at risk for lower crop yields and facing hunger. Within Sub-Saharan Africa, Senegal has some of the highest levels of anemia and micronutrient deficiencies among women and children. Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek] is a pulse crop that has recently been successfully introduced in Senegal to diversify a primarily cereal-based diet consisting of millet, maize, and rice. The potential for mungbean to be harvested as a leafy green as well as a pulse could allow for a more balanced and nutrient-rich diet. This diversification could help combat micronutrient deficiencies while earlier harvest of the leaves could help alleviate the pressures of the "hunger season." To understand the effects of leaf harvest on mungbean grain yield, yield components, and nutrition, a field trial was conducted in Blacksburg, Virginia for three consecutive years from 2020 to 2022. In a split-plot design, four frequencies of leaf harvest (0x, 1x, 2x, and 3x) on seven accessions of mungbean were tested in triplicate. The objective of this experiment was to determine if mungbean can be used as a dual-purpose crop as a leafy green vegetable without decreasing grain yield in Senegal. It was found that mungbeans could undergo up to two leaf harvest of immature leaves without reducing yield, total dry matter (TDM), or yield components. The harvested leaves were also found to be highly nutritious with 22.0% protein, 12.3% fiber and 8.5% ash with no significant differences between leaf harvest treatments. These results indicate that mungbean can be used as a dual-purpose crop for harvest as leafy greens and pulse in Senegal. Further, mungbeans were studied as a viable crop in southside Virginia. The objective was to evaluate the efficacy of mungbeans as an alternative crop to tobacco farmers in Virginia. Field trials were conducted on farmers' fields and at Virginia Tech's Southern Piedmont Agricultural Research and Extension Center in 2021 and 2022. A split-plot experimental design was used with early and late planting dates in the beginning and end of June as the whole plots and two commercially-available cultivars, Berken and OK 2000, as the sub-plots. Due to highly variable rain patterns in 2021 and 2022, as well as differing management practices, there were no consistent effects of genotype or planting date on yield, plant height, pods per plant, seeds per pod, or seed size. Yield ranged from 0.19 MT ha-1 to 1.18 MT ha-1 with an average yield of 0.84 MT ha-1 in 2021 and 0.38 MT ha-1 in 2022. Though there was variation in yield, across planting dates, cultivars, locations, and years, the highest yield was higher than global averages. It was concluded that while there is great potential with the growing mungbean market, more studies of breeding and supply chain issues and development of a production guide are needed for mungbean to be successful in Virginia. A final study compared soybean, edamame, and mungbean nutritional components and volatiles, two characteristics of importance to breeding objectives and food processing regarding plant alternative proteins. It was found that mungbean had significantly less protein (21.1%) than soy (36.2%) and edamame (38.3%). Mungbean also had lower fat (0.769%) compared to soy (13.5%) and edamame (14.0%). Analysis of aromatic compounds revealed that soybean, edamame, and mungbean each had unique profiles that could be advantageous to the production of specific plant protein foods. Overall, these studies demonstrate the growing importance and potential of mungbean in both Senegal and in the United States. / Master of Science / With a rapidly growing world population and increased threats of climate change, Sub-Saharan Africa is most at risk for lower crop yields and facing hunger. Within Sub-Saharan Africa, Senegal has some of the highest levels of anemia and micronutrient deficiencies among women and children. Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek] is a pulse crop that has recently been successfully introduced in Senegal to diversify a primarily cereal-based diet consisting of millet, maize, and rice. The potential for mungbean to be harvested as a leafy green as well as a pulse could allow for a more balanced and nutrient-rich diet. This diversification could help combat micronutrient deficiencies while earlier harvest of the leaves could help alleviate the pressures of the "hunger season." To understand the effects of leaf harvest on mungbean grain yield, yield components, and nutrition, a field trial was conducted in Blacksburg, Virginia for three consecutive years from 2020 to 2022. In a split-plot design, four frequencies of leaf harvest (0x, 1x, 2x, and 3x) on seven accessions of mungbean were tested in triplicate. The objective of this experiment was to determine if mungbean can be used as a dual-purpose crop as a leafy green vegetable without decreasing grain yield in Senegal. It was found that mungbeans could undergo up to two leaf harvest of immature leaves without reducing yield, total dry matter (TDM), or yield components. The harvested leaves were also found to be highly nutritious with 22.0% protein, 12.3% fiber and 8.5% ash with no significant differences between leaf harvest treatments. These results indicate that mungbean can be used as a dual-purpose crop for harvest as leafy greens and pulse in Senegal.

Since 2015, a U.S. Agency for International Development and Virginia Tech Education and Research in Agriculture collaboration has introduced and tested mung bean as a potential crop to alleviate malnutrition and food insecurity in Senegal. This MS thesis describes a study conducted to assess the impact of mung bean on dietary diversity of Senegalese women and children in the Kaolack, Matam and Bakel localities of Senegal. A mixed-methods research approach included individual surveys to determine dietary diversity scores (DDS) and focus groups to assess the perceived impacts of mung bean. The dietary diversity survey was conducted with 194 participants including adult women, ages 15 to 70 years (n=109) and children, ages 0-10 years (n=85). Half (52%) of the population were mung bean consumers. The dietary diversity surveys revealed an average DDS of 5.73 on a scale of one to 10, with 5.83 and 5.62 for mung bean and non-mung bean consuming groups, respectively. There was a statistically significant difference in DDS between mung-bean consuming women and both mung bean and non-mung bean children, and between mung bean and non-mung bean consumers in Bakel; however, there was no significant difference between overall mung bean and non-mung bean groups DDS. Focus groups (n=11) with mung bean consuming women identified perceived agricultural, health, and financial benefits associated with mung bean consumption. These results can increase our understanding of how mung bean may influence policy-relevant issues for the Senegalese population, including agricultural, health and financial outcomes that are not reflected in dietary diversity surveys. / Master of Science / Since 2015, a U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Virginia Tech Education and Research in Agriculture (ERA) collaboration has introduced and tested mung bean as a potential crop to alleviate malnutrition and food insecurity in Senegal. This MS thesis describes a study conducted to assess the impact of mung bean on dietary diversity of Senegalese women and children in the Kaolack, Matam and Bakel localities of Senegal. Individual surveys (n=194) to assess dietary diversity scores (DDS) were conducted with both mung bean and non-mung bean consuming women and children. The results of these surveys revealed that there were statistically significant higher DDS in mung bean consuming women compared to both mung bean and non-mung bean children, and statistically significant higher DDS in mung bean vs non-mung bean consumers in the Bakel locality. However, there was no significant difference between overall mung bean and non-mung bean groups DDS. Additionally, focus groups (n=11) were conducted with only mung bean consuming women. The focus group results indicated perceived agricultural, health, and financial benefits associated with mung bean consumption. Combined, these results can increase our understanding of how mung bean may influence policy-relevant issues for the Senegalese population, including agricultural, health and financial outcomes that are not reflected in dietary diversity surveys.