<p>The aim of this thesis is to explore the Roman <em>salutatio</em>. The morning ritual was reiterated daily throughout the Republic and Empire, and was a fundamental facet of Roman interactions between citizens of varying status. This thesis moves beyond the traditional interpretation of the ritual as a manifestation of Roman patronage, and rather examines the asymmetrical social relationships that existed at the <em>salutatio</em> within the context of the applicable socio-political ideologies of the Republic and Empire. As a ritual that was enacted on a daily basis for centuries, the <em>salutatio</em> is a useful conduit to understand the complexities of social interaction in Roman society.</p> <p>Much of the traditional scholarship on the <em>salutatio</em> has interpreted the <em>salutator</em>/salutatee relationship essentially as a system of social acquiescence, where the salutatee was able to accrue significant social esteem, and the <em>salutator</em> was merely a humble <em>cliens</em> or social inferior. This thesis dissects the abundant, yet fleeting references to the social practice in the ancient sources to analyze how participation in the <em>salutatio</em> impacted individual social status within the greater Roman collective, which was inherently hierarchical. The sources consequently suggest that the ritual was not a system of social subordination, but was rather an accepted behavioural practice which served as a mechanism to promote or establish a distinct ‘Roman-ness’ within the collective Roman identity, irrespective of status. This study furthermore considers influences which prompted significant adaptations of the <em>salutatio</em> over time, which consequently illuminates greater complexities of the Roman social structure.</p> <p>This thesis ultimately presents the <em>salutatio</em> as a Republican ritual which was monopolized by the emperor after the substantial socio-political shift that ensued from the political modification of Republic to Empire. The ritual of the <em>salutatio</em> is therefore a manifestation of the instabilities of the Roman social structure.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

<p>The epic hero Diomedes is, in my opinion, considered a marginal hero, as he is relegated to a backbench in ancient Greek thought and ideology. I examine why this is the case, considering his role and impact in Homer's <em>Iliad</em>. Greek society valued its epic heroes beyond the words of the poets, yet some heroes received much more attention that others as central characters in tragedy and iconography, consequently regarded as favourites by mass audiences. I believe that examining a marginal hero like Diomedes is important in order to understand why Greek culture generally disregarded some warriors in favour of others, especially in the case of Diomedes, who displays heroic virtues more evidently than several other heroes who have received more attention. Overall Greek attitudes toward him offer an intriguing perspective on the epic heroes and the ways in which the Greeks idealized them. An examination of Greek literary, visual, and religious spheres of influence effectively aid in determining the reasons behind this phenomenon. In summary, this work attempts to understand Greek attitudes towards a hero who has received very little scholarly attention. The concept of the epic hero requires analysis of even the most neglected characters; one cannot understand Odysseus, Achilles, or Hector without examining Diomedes, who has a notable role in the very same tradition as the aforementioned heroes.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

<p>This thesis is concerned with the representation of children on sculptural funerary commemoration, with a focus on freedmen panel reliefs and funerary altars. Although there is evidence found from all regions of the Empire, the majority of the material discussed here is from the city of Rome itself. Representations of young children first appear on freedmen panel reliefs, which date to the end of the Republic and were produced into the first century of the Empire. When this genre declined in popularity at the end of the first century AD, funerary altars emerged as the new, preferred form of commemoration. The goal of this thesis is to show that these two types of funerary monuments reveal much about the children themselves, but also provide insight into the social and cultural identity of their parents. Due to the family relationships expressed on these commemorations, I also evaluate the degree of affect demonstrated by the parents or the dedicator towards the children present on these monuments. The first chapter provides a socio-cultural background on the role of children in the family and Roman society as well as the importance of funerary commemoration. In this chapter I also discuss the likelihood of high infant and child mortality rates and explore reactions towards the death of children in literary evidence and social conventions. In the second chapter I provide a background on the significance of the freedman family, followed by an examination of the panel reliefs. The third chapter examines funerary altars that commemorate young children. The material discussed in this chapter is analyzed through a case study approach of nine altars, examining both the epigraphic elements and the sculptural components.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

<p>This dissertation is an attempt to study and comment upon the text of Aeneid 11. In so doing it has been necessary to trace the literary origins of the characters concerned in the hope that this would give some consistent direction to their characterization.</p> <p>Since the world's first historians had been Greeks who had associated history with epic poetry,considering that "history owed its technique and its very existence to Homer and other Greek poets" and that "Athenian tragic drama in the fifth century B.C ... also influenced Greek historical writing" (M.Grant. The Annals of Imperial Rome,10), history and poetry were inextricably woven together as Virgil's Shield of Aeneas clearly indicates (Aeneid 8.626 ff.). That this rapport would have some bearing upon Vergil's work is an aspect noted by a number of scholars who see the Aeneid in terms of allegory,a point of view which I have attempted to explore in treating Aeneid 11.</p> <p>In assessing Vergil's major heroes and his heroine Camilla,it was necessary to evaluate both descriptions and behaviour patterns of other major characters throughout Vergil's epic.As a result of this,my awareness of Vergil's knowledge of ambiguous writing techniques grew and it seemed to me that a subtle manipulation of mythology and Roman history would provide an excellent vehicle for both characterization and narrative of outstanding personages of Vergil's own era.</p> <p>Vergil's deliberate yet sensitive treatment of his major characters,his variatio in the use of typology,his highlighting of motivation and interests,of the horrors of war in which the young and frequently the innocent suffer on both sides,his recording of public debates between prominent politicians and pen portraits of regal furiosae,all find their counterparts in the period of civil strife which ensued after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The sympathy and humanitas of Vergil for all concerned,mirrored in his generally successful attempt to write aequo animo,might be summed up in Aeneas'desperate groan as he views the battle-scenes and carnage depicted on the walls of Juno's temple at Carthage: sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt (Aen.1.462).</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The question of ‘the Pictish language’ has been discussed for over four hundred years, and for well over two centuries it has been the subject of ceaseless and often heated debate. The main disagreement focusing on its linguistic categorisation – whether it was Celtic, Germanic (using modern terminology) or whether it belonged to some more exotic language group such as Basque. If it was Celtic then was it Brittonic or Goidelic? The answer to such questions was of some importance in ascertaining to whom the Scottish past belonged. Was it to immigrant Irish, conquering Germanic peoples or native Britons? The twentieth century saw the normalising of the view that it was closely related to Brittonic with some erudite scholars maintaining that another, non-Celtic language, was also spoken in Pictland. The debate subsequently shifted to focusing on just how close was the relationship between Pictish and Neo-Brittonic. Was Pictish simply a northerly dialect variant of the latter or was it indeed a more distinct and perhaps conservative form, evolving independently in an area outwith Roman power and linguistic influence? Recently, as the field of Pictish studies was subjected to both linguistic and historical scrutiny, discussions have become significantly more sophisticated, but the core question remains, as to whether Pictish distinctiveness merits the label ‘dialect’ or ‘language’, as the Venerable Bede himself stated. This thesis will investigate this core issue by providing an overview of previous thinking and scrutinising the evidence for early divergence. It is intended as groundwork for much needed further studies into this field.

This study traced Tertullian’s utilisation of history (or historical material) as a rhetorical instrument in one of his earliest works, the Ad Nationes. An in-depth analysis of the book identified this as a fundamental trajectory in the argument of Tertullian. The study casts a new perspective on the written work of this renowned Christian apologist and theologian. His use of history particularly to substantiate his arguments was compared with the contemporary primary sources, in order to assess the integrity or accuracy of his historical data. The prevailing rhetoric, as e.g. outlined by Quintilian, valued the message and intention of a text higher than the historical accuracy of the account. The same Quintilian, however, emphasized that historical accuracy would guarantee the message and intention of a text. The research concluded that Tertullian, who enjoyed a classical education and was therefore well acquainted with the rules of rhetoric, did pay sufficient attention to Quintilian’s insistence on historical accuracy in his utilisation of history. Tertullian was well aware of the significance of historical accuracy. On occasion he rightly criticised Tacitus (the famous historian) for historical inaccuracies in his work. In his Apologeticus (in which much of the Ad Nationes was reworked) he corrected some historical data. In the Ad Nationes he wrote a brilliant paragraph on the origin of rumours (fama) and also expressed his appreciation for careful investigation (in court procedures) in order to ascertain the truth (veritas) accurately. In the rhetorical utilisation of historical material, accurate historical knowledge did not play a crucial role. Of paramount importance was the intention and purpose of the immediate argument. / Thesis (MA (Latin))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Why do some religious movements succeed and spread, while others, seemingly equally popular and successful at a certain time, ultimately fail? It is from this starting point that this thesis approaches religious success or failure in the Roman Empire: exploring a new analytical method for understanding religious change: network theory. The thesis forms two parts. Part I sets out the theoretical frameworks. The focus of network theory is on the processes by which innovation spreads: how interconnectedness facilitates change. Although some innovations might be ‘superior’, viewing success or failure as the result of interplay between inherent qualities of a religious movement and the structure of the social environment in which it is embedded means it is possible to reduce value judgements about superiority or inferiority. The discussion then turns to religious change. The key point is that sociologists of religion can explain something of the processes of religious conversion (or ‘recruitment’) and the success or failure of a religious movement through an analysis of social interactions. Finally, I explain how I shall use networks both as a heuristic approach and a practical modelling technique to apply to the epigraphic data, and detail some of the previous application of networks to archaeological test cases. Part II applies these methods to the epigraphic data of three religions. In Chapter Four, I examine the cult Jupiter Dolichenus, arguing that the previous explanations for the success of the cult are untenable, showing from the epigraphy that the cult spread through a strong-tie network of Roman military officials. In Chapter Five, I look at the development of Jewish identity in the Diaspora, showing that, during the second century AD, Diaspora Jews began to actively display their Jewish identity in their epitaphs. I argue that this re-Judaization represents the ‘activation’ of an ethno-cultural network, as a response to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and the crushing of the Bar Kokhba rebellion; the visible remains of the rabbinic reforms. In Chapter Six, I discuss the cult of the ‘Highest God’, Theos Hypsistos, taking Mitchell’s argument further to suggest that the huge increase in the dedications during the second-third centuries is not simply a reflection of the epigraphic habit, but rather, that the cult of Hypsistos was swelled by the Gentile god-fearers, as a result of the changes happening within Judaism itself at this time.

Le héros grec Amphilochos, descendant mythique de la célèbre famille des hérosprophètes Mélampodides, était, comme son père Amphiaraos, un devin reconnu et un soldat aux aptitudes militaires formidables. Après avoir participé à la seconde expédition contre Thèbes et à la guerre de Troie, celui-ci aurait pérégriné dans bon nombre de contrées en fondant plusieurs cités situées entre l’Espagne et la Syrie. Quelque temps après sa mort brutale en combat singulier contre un autre devin nommé Mopsos, Amphilochos fut élevé au rang de divinité oraculaire à Mallos de Cilicie, une cité dont il avait été lui-même le fondateur. À l’époque romaine, Amphilochos avait acquit, en plus d’un statut ontologique supérieur, une très grande réputation dans cette région où il rendait des oracles à des pèlerins qui venaient eux-mêmes le visiter dans son antre. Cette recherche, qui vise d’une part à étudier de façon exhaustive la légende d’Amphilochos, tente surtout de déterminer, malgré un nombre restreint d’indices, les modalités de la révélation oraculaire dans le sanctuaire de Mallos de Cilicie. / The Greek hero Amphilochos, the mythical descendant of the famous family of the Melampodides hero-prophets, was, like his father Amphiaraos, a recognized soothsayer and a soldier with formidable military skills. After taking part in the second expedition against Thebes and the Trojan War, he is said to have wandered in many a land and founded several cities lying between Spain and Syria. Soon after his sudden death in a single combat with another seer named Mopsos, he was elevated to the rank of oracular divinity in Mallos of Cilicia, a city which he himself founded. During the Roman period, Amphilochos, indued with increased ontological status, got into high repute in this region where he gave oracles to the pilgrims who came and visited him by themselves in his abode. This research, which aims first to explore exhaustively the legend of Amphilochos, attempts above all to determine the terms of the oracular revelation in the sanctuary of Mallos of Cilicia, in spite of little compelling evidence.

Erotic tokens or the so-called spintriae leave little to the imagination. These coin-like tokens depict acts of love making couples with Roman numerals on the reverse. The tokens are believed to have been in use during the 1st century A.D. and is often attributed to the reign of Tiberius. The material examined in the thesis are the four spintriae from Uppsala University Coin Cabinet. Due to the specific characteristics, scholars have been questioning the function of the erotic tokens. The most accredited hypothesis is that erotic tokens was used as payment in brothels. The purpose of this thesis is to discern whether the erotic tokens had a monetary value in Pompeii. The study also aims to examine if the tokens were used as payment in brothels instead of contemporary currencies and as to why the reason for this could be. To be able to discern a purpose, function and value of erotic tokens, three analyses on the basis of graffiti, iconography and ancient literature are made.

This study looks at graffiti in Pompeii that seems to indicate male prostitution, to find out whether this activity occurred in antiquity and whether it was meant for both men and women. The hypothesis, which formed the basis of this study, was that male prostitution was just as common as female prostitution in the city of Pompeii. The information that has been relevant to this study is the one which helps us understand the Roman sexuality and sexual morality, Roman sense of humour and their opinions on prostitutes. To get an answer, both primary and secondary sources that deal with these various subjects have been studied and analysed. The information provided and the discussion of them have been divided thematically, where the first part deals with graffiti that indicates prostitution. The graffiti that mentions male prostitution is compared with the graffiti announcing female prostitution as a means to analyse it. Ancient texts that talk about submissive men are also discussed and analysed. Information about infamia and what effect it has on prostitutes in society follows in the next section, a discussion and analysis about the graffiti that appear to be insults is also to be found. Finally, we have informative texts about the Roman sense of humour, examples of this humour both in ancient texts and graffiti are discussed and analysed. All discussion and analysis have then come to confirm my hypothesis. Male prostitution was just as common during antiquity as female prostitution in the city of Pompeii, it was also meant for both women and men. Graffiti that suggests male and female prostitution does not differ significantly; ancient texts also mention women who take part in these sexual services. Graffiti that mentions male names together with a sexual service and a price are the ones we can state verifies male prostitution. Similar graffiti that excludes a prize is most likely an insult or a joke between two Romans. Further studies are required to be able to discuss and analyse the names that arise in the graffiti mentioning male prostitution.