Les nucléotides naturels et les analogues nucléotidiques présentent des activités pharmacologiques importantes : par exemple, le nucléotide adénosine triphosphate (ATP) présente un intérêt pour le traitement de l'ischémie ou de plaques d'athérosclérose. L'utilisation clinique de ces molécules est cependant limitée en raison de la présence d'un groupe triphosphate, qui est sujet à l'hydrolyse in vivo, et responsable de la forte hydrophilie des molécules, ce qui limite fortement leur capture par les cellules cibles et l'accès à leurs cibles pharmacologiques intracellulaires. Pour surmonter ces limitations et permettre l'administration de nucléotides et d’analogues nucléotidiques, l'utilisation de systèmes de drug delivery comme les nanoparticules pourrait assurer la protection et l'administration ciblée des molécules actives. Cependant, les nanoparticules conçues pour l’administration intraveineuse ne sont pas toujours adaptées au traitement de certaines maladies chroniques. C’est pour cela qu’un implant sous-cutané avec des caractéristiques de libération prolongée peut représenter une alternative valable, tout en étant peu invasif et capable d’atteindre les tissus lymphatiques, cible importante de plusieurs thérapies.Le premier chapitre de cette thèse porte sur la formulation de nanoparticules pour encapsuler l’ATP ou la zidovudine triphosphate (AZT-TP), grâce à la présence du chitosane (CS). Ces nanoparticules sont formées par interactions ioniques entre les charges positives du chitosane et les charges négatives des groupes triphosphates de l’ATP ou de l’AZT-TP. Dans ce travail, les nanoparticules sont caractérisées et leur délivrance cellulaire de l’ATP et de l’AZT-TP est démontrée sur une lignée cellulaire de macrophages. Dans un deuxième temps, la stabilité de ces systèmes a été améliorée afin d'obtenir un meilleur comportement en conditions physiologiques. Cette amélioration de la stabilité a été obtenue par la complexation du fer(III) au chitosane (CS-Fe). Cette stratégie a été appliquée aux nanoparticules de tripolyphosphate (TPP) et d’ATP. Les nanoparticules ont été ensuite testées sur deux lignées de cellules macrophagiques, montrant une internalisation améliorée de l’ATP par rapport aux nanoparticules précédentes. Enfin, les nanoparticules à base de CS-Fe et ATP ont été dispersées dans une solution de PLGA, dans le but de mettre au point un implant à formation in situ. Une fois en contact avec les fluides physiologiques, la suspension prend la forme d’un dépôt solide. Des études de libération in vitro montrent la capacité des systèmes de retenir les nanoparticules à l’intérieur de la matrice et de les libérer de façon progressive pendant 5 jours. Après administration sous-cutanée chez la souris, les implants de PLGA contenant les nanoparticules ont retenu l’ATP au lieu de l’injection jusqu’à 50 heures, comparé à quelques heures pour l’ATP libre et les nanoparticules libres, montrant ainsi leur pertinence comme systèmes pour la libération prolongée de nucléotides. / Natural nucleotides and nucleotide analogs display important pharmacological activities: for example the nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) could be an interesting molecule for the treatment of ischemia or atherosclerotic plaques. The clinical use of these molecules is however limited due to the presence of a triphosphate group, which is prone to hydrolysis in vivo, and responsible for the high hydrophilicity of the molecules, thereby strongly limiting their uptake by targeted cells and access to their intracellular pharmacological targets. To overcome these limitations and enable the administration of nucleotides and nucleotide analogs, the use of drug delivery systems such as nanoparticles may enable the protection and the targeted delivery of these drugs. Nanoparticles designed for intravenous injections are however not always convenient, e.g. in the case of chronic diseases. Therefore, a subcutaneous implant with sustained release features might represent a valid alternative, which is less invasive and can reach lymphatic tissues (important targets of many therapies). The first chapter of this thesis presents the formulation of nanoparticles to encapsulate ATP as well as zidovudine triphosphate (AZT-TP), thanks to the presence of chitosan (CS). These nanoparticles are formed through ionic interactions between the positive charges of chitosan and the negative charges of the triphosphate groups of ATP or AZT-TP. In this work, nanoparticles are characterized and their cellular delivery of ATP and AZT-TP inside a macrophage cell line is demonstrated. In a second time, the stability of these systems has been improved in order to obtain a better behavior in physiological conditions. This improved stability has been achieved through the complexation of chitosan to iron(III) (CS-Fe). This strategy has been applied to TPP and ATP nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have been tested on two macrophages cell lines showing an improved internalization compared to the previous ones. Finally, CS-Fe/ATP nanoparticles have been dispersed in a PLGA solution in order to develop an in situ forming implant. Once in contact with physiological fluids, the suspension turns into a solid depot. In vitro release studies show the ability of the systems to retain nanoparticles inside the matrix and to gradually release them over 5 days. After subcutaneous administration to mice, PLGA implants containing nanoparticles were able to retain ATP at the injection site for up to 50 hours, as compared to few hours of free ATP or free nanoparticles, showing therefore their relevance as sustained release systems of nucleotides.

La plupart des chimiothérapies sont connues pour exercer une immunosuppression en plus de leur effet cytotoxique, car elles ciblent sans distinction les cellules à prolifération rapide telles que les cellules tumorales ainsi que les cellules du système immunitaire. Cependant, la radiothérapie ainsi que certaines chimiothérapies comme les anthracyclines ou l’oxaliplatine ont montré une propriété immunostimulante, grâce à l’induction d’une mort cellulaire dite immunogène. Cette mort cellulaire se caractérise par la libération de signaux de danger par la cellule mourante qui vont activer le système immunitaire. Tout d’abord, l’exposition de la calréticuline à la surface de la cellule va être un signal de phagocytose pour les cellules dendritiques. Les cellules succombant à la mort cellulaire libèrent aussi HMGB1 qui en se liant à TLR4 permet un apprêtement et une présentation des antigènes tumoraux efficace. Ensuite, la libération d’ATP qui agit sur les récepteurs P2RX7 permet l’activation de l’inflammasomme NLRP3 et conduit à la sécrétion d’IL-1β indispensable pour l’activation des lymphocytes T CD8+ sécrétant de l’IFN-γ. L’autophagie est un processus de dégradation permettant de limiter l’instabilité génomique et l’initiation de cancers. L’autophagie, peut être induite après un stress du réticulum endoplasmique, qui est nécessaire à l’exposition de la calréticuline lors de la mort cellulaire immunogène. Nous avons donc cherché à évaluer l’importance de l’autophagie après traitement aux chimiothérapies immunogènes. Nous avons montré que l’autophagie est requise pour induire la libération d’ATP lors de la mort cellulaire immunogène. De plus, nous avons montré que l’ATP libéré par les cellules mourantes après traitement aux chimiothérapies immunogènes permet le recrutement de cellules de type monocyte inflammatoire (CD11b+Ly6ChighLy6G-) ainsi que de leurs précurseurs. En outre, l’ATP est un facteur important dans la différenciation de ces cellules en cellules dendritiques inflammatoires. Les cellules CD11b+Ly6ChighLy6G- ont montré une grande capacité à présenter les antigènes tumoraux aux lymphocytes T CD8+ permettant leur activation. Les cellules déficientes pour l’autophagie n’ont quant à elles pas permit le recrutement de cellules dendritiques dans les tumeurs ni l’activation de lymphocytes T CD8+. Ces travaux ont permit de montrer l’importance de l’autophagie pour mettre en place une réponse immunitaire anti-tumorale spécifique lors du traitement avec des chimiothérapies immunogènes. De plus, nous avons montré que l’ATP est impliqué dans le recrutement et la différenciation de cellules avec un phénotype de monocytes inflammatoires. L’ensemble de ces résultats apporte de nouveaux éléments dans la caractérisation du processus de mort cellulaire immunogène. / Most of the cytotoxic agents used in cancer therapy are known to be immunosuppressive, because of their unspecific targeting of rapidly dividing cells, like tumor cells, but also cells of the immune system. However, radiotherapy, as well as some chemotherapeutic agents such as anthracyclines or oxaliplatine were reported to have immunostimulatory effects, thanks to their capacity to induce immunogenic tumor cell death. This type of cell death is characterized by the release of danger signals from the dying tumor cell, which will activate the immune system. As a first event, exposure of calreticulin from the dying tumor cell will act as an « eat-me » signal for dendritic cells. Once released, the nuclear protein HMGB1 will bind to TLR4, facilitating antigen processing and presentation. The dying tumor cells will also release ATP, which acts on P2X7 receptors and activates NLRP3 inflammasomme, leading to IL-1 release, necessary for IFN-- producing CD8+ T cells activation. Autophagy is a degradation process limiting genomic instability and cancer initiation. It can be induced after a stress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER-stress is also involved in calreticulin exposure during immunogenic cell death, so we aimed at understanding the role of autophagy in immunogenic cell death. We found that autophagy is required for the release of ATP after treatment with immunogenic chemotherapies. Moreover, we showed that ATP released from the dying cells is necessary for the recruitment of immune cells with inflammatory monocyte phenotype (CD11b+Ly6ChighLy6G-), as well as their precursors. ATP was also important for the differentiation of these inflammatory monocytes into dendritic cells. These CD11b+Ly6ChighLy6G- cells were efficient in presenting the tumor antigens to CD8+ T cells, and to induce a tumor-specific immune response. However, autophagy-deficient cells were not able to recuit dendritic cells or to induce CD8+ T cells activation. These studies showed the importance of autophagy in tumor-specific immune response, after treatment with immunogenic chemotherapies. We also reported that ATP is involved in the recruitment and differentiation of cells with inflammatory monocytes phenotype. Altogether, these results give new insights in the concept of immunogenic cell death.

Todas as células eucarióticas apresentam mecanismos para controlar e operar o cálcio (Ca2+). Apesar desse íon não ser importante para regulação osmótica e manutenção da concentração iônica da hemolinfa em crustáceos, ele é finamente regulado, pois desempenha papel fundamental no enrijecimento do exoesqueleto desses organismos. Dessa forma o crescimento e fisiologia desses organismos estão ligados ao massivo transporte de Ca2+ que ocorre através das células epiteliais durante o ciclo da muda. Para avaliar os mecanismos transportadores de Ca2+ presentes na membrana plasmática, foram utilizadas células isoladas a partir de hepatopâncreas de D. pagei, um crustáceo dulcícola. Quando essas células foram submetidas a um pulso de 1mM de ATP externo, ocorreu uma queda rápida (50 s) na concentração de cálcio intracelular ([Ca2+]i), que foi totalmente inibida por 10mM de vanadato e parcialmente por 2mM de amiloride, sugerindo que o efluxo ocorreu através de uma Ca-ATPase (PMCA) e de um trocador Na+/Ca2+ (NCX ou NHE), respectivamente. Essa queda foi seguida de uma recuperação dos valores iniciais, que pode ter ocorrido via influxo de Ca2+ do meio externo, sensível ao verapamil (1mM), ou através da liberação de Ca2+ de estoque intracelulares. Células incubadas em meio livre de Ca2+ apresentam uma redução no [Ca2+]i e quando são submetidas a um pulso de Ca2+ externo ocorre um influxo imediato do íon, que é sensível tanto a 1mM de verapamil quanto a 2mM de amiloride, sugerindo que a entrada ocorra via canais para cálcio e via trocador Na+/Ca2+, respectivamente. Juntos esses resultados sugerem que o transporte de cálcio em células isoladas de hepatopâncreas de D. pagei parece ocorrer de maneira semelhante ao modelo proposto em outros crustáceos: efluxo via Ca-ATPase (PMCA) sensível ao vanadato e via trocador Na+/Ca2+ (NCX ) sensível ao amiloride; influxo via canais para Ca2+ sensíveis ao verapamil e modo de influxo de Ca2+ do trocador Na+/Ca2+ ou trocador Na+/H+ (NHE) operando como Ca2+ /(n) Na+, sensíveis ao amiloride. Esses dados contribuem para um maior entendimento do transporte de cálcio em D. pagei (e outros crustáceos) e sua importância para a homeostase e o ciclo da muda. / All eukaryotic cells display several mechanisms to control and operate calcium (Ca2+). Although there is no apparent importance for hemolymph osmo-ionic regulation, it plays an essential role on exoskeleton calcification (hardening). Crustaceans growth and physiology are linked to massive calcium transport during molting cycle. The aim of this work was to evaluate calcium transport mechanisms in hepatopancreatic cells of the freshwater crab D. pagei. When these cells were exposed to external ATP pulse (1mM), it was observed a decrease in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), inhibited by 10mM vanadate and partially by 2mM amiloride, suggesting the involvement of a Ca-ATPase (PMCA) and Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX ou NHE), respectively. Recovery of [Ca2+]i was inhibited by 1mM verapamil, a calcium channel blocker. The same was observed in calcium free environment and so, calcium must have been provided by intracellular stocks (endoplasmatic reticulum and/or mitochondria). When cells incubated in calcium free environment were exposed to calcium pulse (1mM or 10mM), a rapid rise in [Ca2+]i was observed, suggesting calcium influx. This could be partially inhibited by 1mM verapamil or 2mM amiloride, suggesting the participation of calcium channels and Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (Ca2+ influx mode), respectively. Calcium transport in these cell appears to be the same as described for other crustaceans: efflux occurs via a vanadate sensitive Ca-ATPase (PMCA) and by an amiloride sensitive Na+/Ca2+ (NCX exchanger); influx is mediated by a verapamil sensitive calcium channel and by an amiloride sensitive Na+/Ca2+ or Na+/H+ (NHE) operating as Ca2+ /(n) Na+ exchanger. Taken together, these data contributes to a better understanding of D. pagei calcium homeostasis and the moult cycle.

Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de desenvolvimento e validação do método microbiológico rápido empregando a técnica de bioluminescência de Adenosina Trifosfato (ATP) como método alternativo para o teste de esterilidade. O ATP reage com o sistema enzimático luciferina/luciferase e gera um fóton de luz em presença de íons magnésio, reação que pode ser utilizada na detecção de microrganismos. A luz gerada na reação é medida por um dispositivo chamado luminômetro, que traduz o sinal em unidades relativas de luz (URL), metodologia altamente sensível que pode ser utilizada na análise de produtos estéreis com o objetivo de diminuição no tempo do ensaio. Enquanto a turbidez do meio de cultura só pode ser visualizada quando o contaminante chega à concentração de 106 UFC/ml, a tecnologia de bioluminescência de ATP pode detectar amostras com concentração em torno de 104 UFC. Foram empregados na validação dados obtidos a partir do método tradicional de esterilidade (técnica de filtração) realizado paralelamente ao método alternativo. As soluções parenterais utilizadas nos ensaios foram: solução fisiológica 0,9%; solução de dextrose 5%; ringer lactato; e solução de metronidazol 0,5%. As soluções-teste foram inoculadas intencionalmente com suspensões microbianas preparadas através da diluição de Bioballs&#174, com concentrações de 10 UFC/100 ml, 2 UFC/100 ml e 0,4 UFC/100 ml. Após a realização do teste convencional, as membranas resultantes do ensaio foram incubadas nos meios de cultura caldo caseína de soja e tioglicolato. Alíquotas destes meios foram retiradas após 96 horas de incubação para análise pelo método alternativo. Os seguintes microrganismos foram selecionados para o estudo: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacilus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Clostridium sporogenes, Aspergillus brasiliensis, Kocuria rosea e Micrococcus luteus. A análise dos resultados obtidos mostrou que o método alternativo é capaz de detectar os microrganismos testados. Quanto à sensibilidade, o método alternativo apresentou vantagem na concentração 2 UFC/100 ml, e equivalência nas outras concentrações. A não interferência dos diferentes produtos e meios nos resultados encontrados permite vislumbrar evidência de robustez do método. Adicionalmente, em relação ao tempo de resposta, o método alternativo demonstrou ser equivalente ao convencional (p-valor=0,43). / This study is being conducted with a goal of validating and developing the fast microbiological method of ATP bioluminescence, as an alternative method to the sterility test. The ATP reacts with the enzymatic system luciferin-luciferase and produces light in the presence of magnesium ions, this reaction can be used for microorganism\'s detection. The light generated in this reaction can be measured by a device called luminometer that translates the signal in relative light units (RLU). This methodology has high sensibility and it can be used in the sterile products analysis with the objective of reducing the time of the sample. While the turbidity of the culture medium it can be visualized just when the sample reaches a concentration of 106 UCF per mL, the bioluminescence assay can detect samples at concentrations around 104 UCF per mL. The both methods, conventional (filtration technique) and alternative were done in parallel and the result data were used in the validation study. It was used in the assay the next parenteral solutions: physiological solution 0,9%, metronidazole solution 0,5%, dextrose solution 5% and Ringer lactate. The test solutions were inoculated with the microorganism suspensions, prepared by the dilution of the Bioballs® with result concentrations of 10 CFU/100 mL, 2 FU/100 mL and 0,4 CFU/ mL. After the conventional test was performed, the result membranes were incubated in thioglicollate and soybean casein broth. After 96 hours of incubation, aliquots from the broth were taken to perform the analysis by the alternative method. The following microorganisms were selected to perform the validation study: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacilus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium sporogenes, Candida albicans, Aspergillus brasiliensis, Kocuria rosea and Micrococcus luteus. The analysis of results shows that the alternative method can detect the test microorganisms. Regarding of the sensibility, the alternative method shows advantage in the 2 CFU/mL inoculum concentration and equivalence in the other two concentrations. The method shows evidence of robustness because the results were not affected by the products or culture media used in the assay. Additionally concerning the detection time, the alternative method was established equivalent to the conventional method (p-value=0,43).

O ATP mediando a sinalização purinérgica no bulbo ventrolateral rostral contribui para o controle do quimiorreflexo central e periférico regulando a pressão arterial e a respiração, mediante o envolvimento dos neurônios do núcleo retrotrapezóide (RTN). No entanto, as potenciais contribuições da sinalização purinérgica, no RTN, na função cardiorrespiratória em animais não anestesiados ainda não foram testadas. Mostramos que a injeção de ATP no RTN promoveu aumento cardiorrespiratório por um mecanismo dependente de receptores P2. Mostramos também que o bloqueio de receptor P2 não específico (PPADS), mas não de receptores específicos P2Y (MRS2179), reduziu a resposta ventilatória à hipercapnia (7% CO2) e hipóxia (8 % O2) em ratos não anestesiados. Além disso, a adenosina (ADO) no RTN atenuou o aumento da ventilação induzido por hipercapnia in vivo e o disparo dos neurônios in vitro. Estes resultados demonstram que a sinalização mediada por ATP contribui para o controle respiratório do quimiorreflexo central e periférico em ratos acordados e uma vez que o ATP se metaboliza rapidamente em ADO, esta teria ação no balanço da resposta quimiorreceptora no RTN. / ATP-mediated purinergic signaling at the level of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) contributes to both central and peripheral chemoreceptor control of breathing and blood pressure within the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN). However, potential contributions of purinergic signaling in the RTN to cardiorespiratory function in conscious animals has not been tested. We show that in the absence of functional C1 cells, ATP into the RTN increased cardiorespiratory output by a P2-recepor dependent mechanism. We also show that a non-specific P2 receptor blocker (PPADS) reduced the ventilatory response to hypercapnia (7% CO2) and hypoxia (8% O2) in unanesthetized awake rats. Conversely, a specific P2Y1-receptor blocker (MRS2179) into the RTN had no measurable effect on respiratory responses elicited by hypercapnia or hypoxia. Moreover, adenosine (ADO) into the RTN could attenuate the hypercapnia-induced increase in ventilation in vivo and firing rate in RTN neurons in vitro. These results demonstrate that ATP-mediated purinergic signaling contributes to central and peripheral chemoreflex control of breathing in awake rats and ADO could provide a balance between ATP stimulation and its inhibition in RTN during hipercapnia.

O gênero Hypostomus (Siluriformes: Loricariidae) com cerca de 130 espécies nominais, se destaca como um dos mais diversos e amplamente distribuídos gêneros de peixes de água doce neotropical. Devido a sua ampla distribuição e alta diversidade, os conhecimentos taxonômicos, filogenéticos e biogeográficos para as espécies do gênero são ainda consideravelmente incompletos. Consequentemente, pouco se sabe sobre processos naturais envolvidos em diversificação e variação morfológica para o gênero. Hypostomus ancistroides é uma espécie descrita para a bacia do Alto Paraná, uma eco-região hidrográfica tradicionalmente reconhecida por seu endemismo ictiofaunístico, ocorrendo também na bacia costeira do rio Ribeira de Iguape. Esta espécie apresenta considerável variação morfológica, cariotípica e isoenzimática em suas diferentes populações, sugerindo a existência de um complexo de espécies. Sua ampla área de distribuição, somada aos novos conhecimentos sobre padrões biogeográficos para diversas espécies de peixes do Alto Paraná, reforça essa possibilidade. Entretanto, a variação encontrada na morfologia das populações de H. ancistroides é ampla e contínua, impedindo que se defina diferentes espécies através das abordagens taxonômicas clássicas em ictiologia. Assim, este trabalho se propõe a utilizar ferramentas da sistemática molecular, genética de populações e filogeografia para responder questões fundamentais sobre a evolução desse potencial complexo de espécies. Sequências nucleotídicas completas do marcador mitocondrial ATP sintase (subunidades 6 e 8; 842 pb) foram obtidas para diversas espécies de Hypostomus, incluindo 162 exemplares de H. ancistroides provenientes de doze localidades abrangendo toda a sua área de ocorrência, além de outros gêneros da família Loricariidae, utilizados como grupos externos. Análises filogenéticas de Máxima Verossimilhança, Máxima Parcimônia e Neighbor Joining resultaram em topologias essencialmente semelhantes, sustentando a monofiletismo da espécie, e apontando como seus parentes mais próximos espécies de bacias hidrográficas adjacentes ao Alto Paraná. Esses resultados mostram ainda a existência de quatro filogrupos distintos para a espécie, com áreas de distribuição parcialmente sobrepostas. Análises populacionais e filogeográficas incluiram comparação de distância genética P, estruturação populacional baseada em distribuição de haplótipos e índices de diversidade, testes de neutralidade, índice de fixação FST, análise de variância molecular (AMOVA), análise espacial de variância molecular (SAMOVA), construção de rede haplotípica de parcimônia, e análise de clados hierarquizados (NCPA). Os resultados mostram 48 haplótipos repartidos em doze populações bem estruturadas, com baixo ou nenhum fluxo gênico entre si. Eventos de expansão geográfica podem ser identificados ao longo da história demográfica, sugerindo que a estruturação encontrada atualmente reflete não só as características ecológicas da espécie, como também uma história de mudanças nas condições ambientais, eventualmente favoráveis a migração e dispersão. Contatos entre populações de diferentes bacias podem ser mais frequentes através de capturas de cabeceiras do que ao longo do corpo dos rios principais. A hipótese mais plausível para a presença da espécie na bacia do Ribeira é a de uma captura de cabeceira do alto rio Tietê. Apesar de ser formado por quatro filogrupos distintos, algumas linhagens derivadas de H. ancistroides apresentam sobreposição de suas áreas de distribuição. Esse contato secundário revelado apenas por um marcador de herança matrilineal impossibilita a delimitação de diferentes espécies correspondentes aos filogrupos, sob os paradigmas clássicos de especiação em peixes neotropicais. / The genus Hypostomus (Siluriformes: Loricariidae), comprising ca. 130 nominal species, is one of the most species-rich and widely distributed genera of neotropical freshwater fish. Because of its wide distribution and vast diversity, knowledge on the taxonomy, phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of Hypostomus is still severely incomplete. Consequently, little is known about the processes involved in the diversification and morphological variation for the genus. Hypostomus ancistroides is a species described from the upper Rio Paraná drainage, a freshwater ecoregion known for its ichthyological endemism, also occurring in the coastal basin of Rio Ribeira de Iguape. This species shows considerable morphological, karyotypic and isoenzimatic variation among different populations, suggesting the existence of a species complex. Its wide distribution area, coupled with recent understanding on biogeographic patterns of several fish species from the Upper Parana, reinforces that possibility. However, morphological variation in populations of H. ancistroides is wide and continuous, and does not allow recognition of potential different species by means of traditional taxonomic approaches. Thus, this paper uses tools from molecular systematics, population genetics, and phylogeography in order to answer major questions about the evolution of this potential species complex. Complete sequences of the mitochondrial marker ATP synthase (subunits 6 and 8; 842 bp) were obtained for several species of Hypostomus, including 162 specimens of H. ancistroides from twelve localities covering its entire area of distribution, plus other loricariid genera as outgroups. Phylogenetic analysis using methods of Maximum Likelihood, Maximum Parsimony, Neighbor Joining and Bayesian Inference resulted in mostly similar topologies, supporting the monophyly of the species, and showing as its closest relatives other species from river basins bordering the Upper Parana. Results also reveal four distinct phylogroups for the species, with partially overlapping distribution areas. Population and phylogeographic analysis included comparisons of genetic distance P, population structure based on the haplotype distribution and diversity indices, neutrality tests, fixation index FST, analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA), construction of a parsimony haplotype network, and nested clade phylogeographical analysis (NCPA). Results show 48 haplotypes distributed into twelve well-structured populations with little or no gene flow. Geographic range expansion events can be identified along the demographic history of H. ancistroides, suggesting that the structure found today reflects not only the ecology of the species, but also a history of changing environmental conditions that on occasion weree favorable for migration and dispersal. Contact between populations from differente basins may be more intense through headwater stream capture than through the river channel. The most supported hypothesis for the presence of the species in the Rio Ribeira basin is a headwater capture from the upper Rio Tiete. Although H. ancistroides is split into four distinct phylogroups, some derived lineages of the species have overlapping distribution ranges. Such secondary contact is revealed only by a matrilineal inheritance marker and does not allow the recognition of separate species for the different phylogroups under the current paradigm of speciation and species limits in Neotropical fishes.

As descargas atmosféricas estão entre as principais causas de distúrbios nos sistemas elétricos, provocando sobretensões e ocasionando uma parcela significativa das interrupções não programadas. Tais distúrbios são cada vez mais percebidos pelos consumidores, ocasionando desde o mau funcionamento até a queima de aparelhos e equipamentos eletro-eletrônicos residenciais, comerciais e industriais. Antigamente eletromecânicos, tais aparelhos são atualmente, em grande parte, produzidos com componentes semicondutores, o que os torna mais sensíveis a interferências. As descargas atmosféricas também apresentam um agravante de, salvo raras exceções, não serem registradas nos bancos de dados das concessionárias, ao contrário das operações de manobra, faltas e variações de carga na rede de distribuição. Essa situação contribui para os conflitos cada vez mais freqüentes entre consumidores e empresas de energia a respeito dos pedidos de indenização por danos em aparelhos elétricos (PID). Dada a relevância do tema, muitos estudos têm sido realizados ao longo dos últimos anos, sem entretanto esclarecer todos os aspectos necessários para a minimização desses problemas. Neste trabalho são avaliadas as amplitudes e formas de onda das sobretensões transferidas à rede de baixa tensão via transformador quando da ocorrência de surtos no primário. Esses surtos podem ser oriundos de descargas diretas na rede primária ou decorrentes de descargas em suas proximidades. O estudo visa a obtenção de informações tendo em vista a melhoria do desempenho das redes de distribuição e conseqüentemente a minimização dos danos causados aos consumidores. Nas simulações, realizadas através do programa ATP (“Alternative Transients Program"), são consideradas linhas com configurações típicas, bem como modelos de comprovada validade para representação dos isoladores de média e de baixa tensão e do transformador de distribuição. O trabalho analisa a influência, nas sobretensões, de diversos parâmetros, como por exemplo amplitude e forma de onda da corrente da descarga, ponto da incidência da descarga, resistência de terra e presença de dispositivos de proteção contra surtos. Os resultados apresentados constituem-se em importantes subsídios para a definição de critérios de instalação de dispositivos de proteção contra surtos em redes de baixa tensão. / Lightning discharges are among the main causes of disturbances in electrical systems, causing overvoltages and leading to a significant portion of unscheduled interruptions. Such disturbances are increasingly noticed by consumers, causing from malfunction to the burnt-out of electrical-electronic devices and equipment in homes, businesses and industries. Formerly electromechanical, such devices currently are, in their majority, produced with semiconductors, what makes them more sensitive to interferences. Lightning discharges also present the aggravation of not being recorded in power suppliers’ databases, but for seldom exceptions, as opposed to switching operations, failures and charge variations in the distribution network. This situation contributes for the increasingly frequent conflicts among consumers and power companies regarding indemnity claims due to damages to electrical devices. Given the subject’s significance, many studies have been conducted along the past years, not explaining, however, all the aspects required to minimize those problems. On this work, the amplitudes and waveforms of overvoltages on medium and low voltage lines are evaluated upon the incidence of direct discharges on the primary. The voltages transferred to the low voltage side are also evaluated in case of strikes in the vicinity of the line. The study intends to obtain information in order to achieve a performance improvement of distribution networks and, as a consequence, the reduction of damages to consumers to a minimum. In the simulations conducted through ATP (“Alternative Transients Program"), lines with typical configurations are considered and models of proven validity are used to represent the low and medium voltage insulators and the distribution transformer. The work analyses the effect of several parameters on the overvoltages, such as amplitude and waveform of the stroke current, lightning strike point, grounding resistance and existence of surge protective devices. The results presented constitute an important foundation to define the installation criteria of surge protective devices on low voltage networks.

L’ATP extracellulaire, à travers l’activation du récepteur P2X7, joue un rôle important dans l’immunité inné comme signal de danger responsable de l’assemblage de l’inflammasome, de la migration des cellules immunitaires et de la mort cellulaire. Bien que le rôle de la voie ATP/P2X7 dans l’immunité adaptative reste sous-estimé, il a été rapporté que le récepteur P2X7 participe aux mécanismes de signalisation impliqués dans l’activation des lymphocytes T, leur prolifération et leur différentiation. Notre laboratoire a récemment montré que les lymphocytes T effecteurs (CD4+ ou CD8+) en fin de réponse immunitaire secondaire, exprimant à la membrane la tyrosine phosphatase de membrane B220, sont totalement résistant à l’activation du récepteur P2X7 à cause d’une perte d’adressage de ce récepteur à la membrane. Le but de ce travail de thèse est d’étudier la sensibilité des lymphocytes T, à différents stades d’activation, aux activités cellulaires induites par l’ATP, notamment le clivage de la molécule de homing CD62L ou L-sélectine, l’ouverture du canal ionique, la formation du pore et l’externalisation de la PS. Mes principaux résultats montrent que les activités cellulaires dépendantes du récepteur P2X7 sont dissociées. Les lymphocytes T au stade effecteur/mémoire sont moins sensibles au clivage de la molécule CD62L que les lymphocytes T au stade naïf et récemment activé. Les lymphocytes naïfs T récemment activé en réponse immunitaire primaire sont les plus sensibles à la formation du pore. De plus, les lymphocytes T récemment activés, aussi bien en réponse immunitaire primaire que secondaire, sont les plus sensibles à l’externalisation de la PS. Enfin, dans les lymphocytes T récemment activé, les activités de pore et d’externalisation de PS, mais pas le clivage de CD62L, sont dépendantes du taux de calcium. / Extracellular ATP through the receptor P2X7 (P2X7R) plays a key role in innate immunity as a danger signal that causes the activation of the inflammasome, enhancement of immune cell migration and cell death. Although the role of the ATP/P2X7R pathway in adaptative immunity remains underestimated, it has been reported that P2X7R regulates signaling events involved in T-cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation into effector lineages. Moreover, we have previously shown that effector T lymphocytes (either CD4+ or CD8+) that express the B220 isoform of CD45 at the plasma membrane at the end of the secondary immune response are totally resistant to ATP stimulation due to loss of P2X7R membrane expression. In the present study, we compared the sensitivity of T lymphocytes to cellular activities trigerred by P2X7R according to their stage of activation. Interestingly, our results showed that P2X7-dependent cellular activities are dissociated. T lymphocytes at effector/memory stage are less sensitive to CD62L shedding than naïve or recently activated T lymphocyte during primary immune response. Naive T lymphocytes recently activated during primary immune response are the most sensitive to pore formation. Furthermore, recently activated T lymphocytes at both primary and secondary immune responses are the most sensitive to PS externalization. Finally, pore formation, PS externalization but not CD62L shedding, are dependent on calcium signaling.

A qualidade da energia elétrica tem sido objeto constante de estudos, pois problemas inerentes a ela podem trazer grandes prejuízos econômicos, principalmente em processos industriais. Dentre os vários fatores que afetam a qualidade da energia elétrica, destacamos aqueles relacionados com os transitórios, originados pelo chaveamento de banco de capacitares nas redes elétricas de distribuição primária. Neste trabalho, além das características dos transitórios provenientes da energização de bancos de capacitares da concessionária, são analisados fatores que influenciam em suas intensidades. As condições sob as quais estes transitórios são atenuados foram investigadas. Além disto, é feita uma análise espectral das ondas de corrente e tensão, permitindo que sejam revelados os componentes harmônicos que podem afetar o funcionamento de equipamentos de controle, proteção e cargas sensíveis da indústria. Um circuito que representa um sistema real de distribuição, 13,8 kV, da concessionária CPFL (Cia Paulista de Força e Luz) foi simulado através do ATP (Alternative Transients Program). / The quality of electric power has been a constant topic of study, because inherent problems to it can bring great economic losses, mainly in industrial processes. Among the several factors that atfect power quality, those related to the transients originated by capacitar bank switching in the primary distribution systems must be highlighted. In this work, the characteristics of the transients resulting from the switching of the utility capacitor banks are analyzed, as well as factors that influence their intensities. The conditions under which these effects are mitigated was investigated. In addition, a spectral analysis of the current and voltage waves is made. This procedure can reveal the harmonic components that can affect the operation of control and protection equipment, as well as sensitive Ioads of the industry. A circuit that represents a real distribution system, 13.8 kV, from CPFL (Cia Paulista de Força e Luz) utility, was simulated through the software ATP (Alternative Transients Program).

Les mécanismes de défense de l’organisme contre des pathogènes ou des particules toxiques sont regroupés sous le terme d’Immunité. L’Immunité a développé plusieurs familles de récepteurs dont les NLR (Nod Like Receptors) spécialisés dans la reconnaissance de motifs de pathogènes (PAMP), de signaux de danger endogènes (DAMP) et de désordres métaboliques et capables d’engager une réponse inflammatoire. L’inflammation est dite stérile si elle n’est pas déclenchée par des agents infectieux mais par des molécules endogènes en excès comme l’acide urique et l’ATP ou par des polluants environnementaux tels que la silice et les nanoparticules. Nous nous sommes d’une part intéressés aux mécanismes d’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 qui permet la maturation d’une cytokine pro-inflammatoire, l’Interleukine (IL)-1β. Nous montrons que les cristaux d’acide urique, de silice et d’Alum ainsi que les nanoparticules de titane et de silice induisent une libération active d’ATP dépendante d’hémicanaux par les cellules. Nous mettons en évidence un nouveau mécanisme d’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 qui fait intervenir l’ATP et ses différents métabolites, en particulier l’adénosine, via des familles de récepteurs purinergiques. Nous nous sommes d’autre part focalisés sur l’inflammation pulmonaire induite par l’administration de nanoparticules dans un modèle murin. Nous avions montré dans une étude précédente que cette inflammation est dépendante des IL-1α et IL-1β et de leur récepteur IL-1R1. Nos résultats montrent que l’adénosine est impliquée in vivo dans la réponse inflammatoire aux nanoparticules et que l’inflammation des voies respiratoires est modulée par l’IL-33 et son récepteur ST2. / The mechanisms of defense of the organism against pathogens or oxious particles are termed Immunity. The Immunity developed several receptors’ families among which the NLR (Nod-Like Receptors), specialized in the recognition of pathogen patterns (PAMPs), of endogenous danger signals (DAMPs) and of metabolic disorders, and capable of triggering an inflammatory response. The inflammation is named “sterile” if it is not activated by infectious agents but by endogenous molecules in excess, as uric acid and ATP, or by environmental pollutants, such as silica and nanoparticles. We first became interested in the mechanisms of activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome which allows the maturation of a pro-inflammatory cytokine, the Interleukine (IL) -1β. We show that uric acid, silica or Alum crystals but also titanium and silica nanoparticles induce an active release of ATP by cells, dependent of hemichannels. We highlight an innovative mechanism of activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome which involves ATP and its metabolites, in particular adenosine, through purinergic receptor families. We then focused on the nanoparticle-induced lung inflammation in a murine model. We had shown in a previous study that this inflammation is dependent on IL-1α, IL-1β and their common receptor IL-1R1. Our in vivo results show that adenosine is involved in nanoparticle-induced inflammatory response and that airway inflammation is modulated by IL-33 and its receptor ST2.