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Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This thesis began, as I imagine most theses do, as a very formal and very orthodox research paper. While it continues to be this to a measurable extent, it has undergone a metamorphosis. In these pages I discuss the serious challenges faced in schools (as well as the setbacks endured inside their walls) by native-English speaking children of all cultures and creeds, who speak forms of English other than Standard English (hereafter SE) in their homes and with their family and friends. I then contrast these challenges with the stark advantages enjoyed by children who, due likely to their inherited socio-economic class, make regular use of SE inside their residences and with their peers and relations. One non-standard dialect of English found in widespread use by young boys and girls in the United States is African American English (hereafter AAE). Because success in U.S. schools depends heavily on students’ production and comprehension of SE, those youngsters who already employ SE as their principal language are at an immediate educational advantage, one that is, by default, not afforded to children who as a rule speak a dialect/language other than SE, such as AAE. Within these pages you will find an official statement made by the TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) Executive Committee that soundly validates African American English as a true, rule-governed linguistic system, and thus a language. I also discuss my view that to devalue a child’s language in school, by not validating it as true, operative speech—“Don’t talk that way, that’s wrong!”—is, in essence, to devalue the whole child. It is an act that will be perceived negatively and reacted to negatively by most children. In addition to these issues, I discuss the prevalence of AAE in American society at large, as well as its prevalent use by non-African American youth.

The purpose of this study was to understand the issue of the language of instruction to school literacy learning in rural Haiti. Using a narrative approach, 10 participants who live and work in a rural village in Northern Haiti were involved. I sought to examine their experience and perspectives on the issue as well as their level of awareness and the ways they navigate through the system to succeed in life. The dissertation also investigated their struggle to learn using a language over which they do not have much command and that they do not speak at home and in their community. This dissertation drew from critical pedagogy, as a conceptual framework that advocates for emancipation by providing quality and equitable education for all students as agents of change filled with intellectual potentiality and the ability to address oppressive patterns in society and challenge the status quo. Data from subjects were collected from focus groups, in-class observations, and semi-structured interviews. The analysis of the data was done utilizing three coding cycles and three themes were identified: 1) Students’ production based on the language in use, 2) The importance of the setting for language mastery and literacy learning, and 3) The role of language mastery in students’ success in school and in the workplace. The study suggests implications for future research, parents, and school leaders. The findings identify gaps and purpose to add to the literature given the paucity of research on the issue of the language of instruction as applied to schools in rural Haiti.Keywords: literacy learning, language of instruction, mother tongue, bilingualism, code-switching

Focusing on a series of multiparty recordings carried out between the months of October and March 2012 and drawing on a theoretical framework based on work of linguists such as Auer (1999), Backus (2005), Bakker (2000), Maschler (2000) and Matras (2000a and 2000b), this thesis traces the evolution of a continuum of language alternation phenomena, ranging from simple code-switching to more complex forms of 'language alloying' (Alvarez- Càccamo 1998) such as mixed codes and fused lects in multilingual Mauritius. Following Auer (2001), the different conversational loci of code-switching are identified. Particular emphasis has been placed upon, amongst others, the conversational locus of playfulness where, for instance, participants' spontaneous lapses into song and dance sequences as they inspire themselves from Bollywood pop songs and creatively embed segments in Hindustani within a predominantly Kreol matrix are noted. Furthermore, in line with Auer (1999), Backus (2005) and Muysken (2000), emerging forms of language mixing such as changes in the way possessive marking is carried in Kreol and instances of semantic shift in Bhojpuri/ Hindustani words like nasha and daan have been highlighted and their pragmatic significance explained with specific reference to the Mauritian context. Finally, in the fused lect stage, specific attention has been provided to one key feature namely phonological blending which has resulted in the coinage of the discourse marker ashe and its eventual use in the process of discourse marker switching. In the light of the above findings, this thesis firstly critiques the strengths and weaknesses of the notion of the code switching (CS) continuum (Auer 1999) itself by revealing the difficulties encountered, at the empirical level, in assigning the correct label to the different types of language alternation phenomena evidenced in this thesis. In the second instance, it considers the impact of such shifts along the language alternation continuum upon language policy and planning in contemporary Mauritius and advocates for a move away from colonial language policies such as the 1957 Education Act in favour of updated ones that are responsive to the language practices of speakers. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

The Swedish curriculum for the subject English in upper secondary school clearly states the English should be used“as far as possible” in the classroom. However, the possible amount of first language usage is never mentioned. Thisfact piqued our interest for investigating how much, if any, first language use is beneficial for learning a newlanguage. For this reason, we decided to pose our research questions as follows: What are the different views on theusage of the L1 in an L2 and foreign-language classroom according to the teachers and learners? What has been saidabout only target language usage from a historical and a contemporary perspective? Does the use of the L1 in asecond-language/foreign-language classroom have a positive or negative effect on the learners’ language learning?To answer these questions, we have read and analysed sixteen empirical studies. Firstly, the research shows that bothlearners and teachers prefer to use the second language/target language as much as possible. However, they alsorecognise the benefits that the first language can have. The second question we have answered using both empiricalstudies as well as theorists from second language acquisition research and sociocultural theory. Our literaturedescribes a shift in language learning and teaching, from the bilingual grammar-translation method towards a moremonolingual classroom where the first language has no place. However, the empirical studies signal a new shift insecond-language/foreign-language education, reverting back to a more bilingual approach. Finally, all studies agreethat the first language has a complementary role in the language classroom, and if used properly, it can have apositive effect on language acquisition. Through our results we argue that the first language can increase the learners’motivation, move the tasks along and create a non-threatening environment where learners can feel safe to use thetarget language. Although the first language can benefit second language learning, learners and teachers must beaware of the danger of extensive usage, as it should remain a supplement to the target language.

Submitted by Cristiane Chim (cristiane.chim@ucpel.edu.br) on 2018-06-25T11:41:29Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Lorena Oliveira Py.pdf: 1617344 bytes, checksum: 8be1bfdde8e196433896a9daee70ba62 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-25T11:41:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lorena Oliveira Py.pdf: 1617344 bytes, checksum: 8be1bfdde8e196433896a9daee70ba62 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-19 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq# / #-2555911436985713659# / #600 / El objetivo de ese trabajo de disertación es verificar las motivaciones y los contextos en que hay el cambio de código lingüístico en el habla del sujeto fronterizo. También buscamos verificar las situaciones internacionales en que ocurre ese cambio, como, cuando y donde así como la verificación del grado de bilingüismo de los participantes del estudio, de acuerdo con la representación del hablante con relación a su propia competencia. A fin de cumplir con nuestros objetivos, observamos el local en que la investigación fue desarrollada: una peluquería ubicado en la ciudad de Santana do Livramento (BRA) y que hace frontera con la ciudad de Rivera (UY). Además de la observación, una aplicación de entrevista semi-estructurada abierta fue desarrollada como recorrido metodológico empleado junto a 3 operarias fronterizas, a partir de participación voluntaria, de la peluquería. Para la realización de esta investigación, traemos para la oportunidad las concepciones de algunos teóricos, como Bakhtin, pues nos ayuda a entender el movimiento dialógico y los encadenamientos discursivos realizados en el interior del diálogo, y Canclini que introduce las relaciones culturales que se crean a partir de la interacción, de procesos de cambios, de negociación y de diferenciación inter e intracultural. Pero aún, charlamos con varios autores, entre ellos Grosjean, que define que bilingües son individuos que utilizan dos o más lenguas o dialectos en su día a día, y Mozzilo, que conceptúa lo que sería el code switching. Preguntábamos se la alternancia en el código lingüístico fronterizo se daba de forma consciente o inconsciente, así como se estaba relacionada con problemas de lealtad, su propia cultura o al ambiente enunciativo. En ese sentido, comprendemos que lo que cuenta realmente para el cambio es la motivación y no el contexto y que el ambiente es favorable para que cada individuo explore potencialidades para la transmisión de la interculturalidad. / O objetivo desse trabalho de dissertação é verificar as motivações e os contextos em que há a mudança de código linguístico na fala do sujeito fronteiriço. Também buscamos identificar as situações interacionais em que acontecem essa mudança, como, quando e onde assim como a verificação do grau de bilinguismo dos participantes do estudo, de acordo com a representação do falante com relação a sua própria competência. Afim de cumprir com nossos objetivos, observamos o local em que a pesquisa foi desenvolvida: um salão de beleza situado na cidade de Santana do Livramento (BR) e que faz fronteira com a cidade de Rivera (UY). Além da observação, uma aplicação de entrevista semiestruturada aberta foi desenvolvida como percurso metodológico empregado junto a 3 funcionárias fronteiriças, a partir de participação voluntária, do salão de beleza. Para a realização desta pesquisa, trazemos para o ensejo as concepções de alguns teóricos, como Bakhtin, pois nos ajuda a entender o movimento dialógico e os encadeamentos discursivos realizados no interior do diálogo, e Canclini que introduz as relações culturais que se criam a partir da interação, de processos de trocas, de negociação e de diferenciação inter e intracultural. Mais ainda, dialogamos com vários autores, entre eles Grosjean, que define que bilíngues são indivíduos que utilizam duas ou mais línguas ou dialetos no seu dia a dia, e Mozzilo, que conceitua o que seria o code switching. Perguntávamos se a alternância no código linguístico fronteiriço se dava de forma consciente ou inconsciente, bem como se estava relacionada com problemas de lealdade a sua própria cultura ou ao ambiente enunciativo. Nesse sentido, compreendemos que o que conta realmente para a mudança é a motivação e não o contexto e que o ambiente é favorável para que cada indivíduo explore potencialidades para a transmissão da inteculturalidade.

Sammanfattning Denna uppsats är baserad på en undersökning med hjälp av åtta lärare i en högstadieskola i Guatemala. Studien syftade till att ta reda på hur lärarna i bergsbyn upplever att flerspråkigheten har utvecklats och om språkliga influenser från andra kulturer har märkts i elevernas språkbruk. Dessutom var det intressant att se om ”spanglish” även har brett ut sig på landsbygden långt bort från städerna, samt om kulturutbytet med svenska skolor har påverkat elevernas språkutveckling. Undersökningen bestod i en brevintervju riktad till lärarna på skolan och svaren har sedan bearbetats. Resultaten har diskuterats i förhållande till relevant litteratur och tidigare forskning inom flerspråkighet. Det visade sig att lärarna som medverkade i studien ser många fördelar med att flera språk samverkar i undervisningen, även om de också uttrycker oro för influenser från engelskan som kan bidra till att deras eget modersmål och även deras spanska språk blir kontaminerat av det engelska högstatusspråket. Respondenterna ger uttryck för positiva effekter av att lära känna andra kulturer och att språken då bidrar till en naturlig del av undervisningen. De beskriver en längtan av behärska flera språk, men förklarar att de ekonomiska förutsättningarna inte möjliggör detta. Dessutom betonar respondenterna vikten av deras modersmål chuj och uttrycker ett stort behov av att förstärka denna undervisning inte bara i talspråket utan även inom läs-och skrivutvecklingen för att stödja eleverna i all deras modersmålsundervisning, så att de ska kunna uttrycka det som verkligen berör dem och deras egen kultur, deras traditioner, språket inom familjen, deras värderingar och framför allt deras egen historia. Genom att lära sig flera språk kan de bättre uttrycka vad de tänker och vad de känner, för att lära sig ett nytt språk behöver inte betyda att man glömmer sitt eget. Nyckelord: ”code-switching”, flerspråkighet, ”spanglish”, succesiv bilingualism

Šiame darbe analizuota kodų kaita antrosios ir trečiosios kartos JAV gyvenančių lietuvių kalboje. Pasirinkta tema Lietuvoje yra aktuali ir nauja. Iki šiol Amerikos lietuvių, ar į kitas šalis išvykusių lietuvių, kodų kaitos praktika mokslinėje literatūroje išsamiau neanalizuota. Tikslui pasiekti kelti tokie darbo uždaviniai: aptarti tiriamosios medžiagos duomenis; iš interviu pateiktų atsakymų nustatyti, kokiose situacijose Amerikos lietuviai dažniausiai bendrauja lietuviškai, kaip jie vertina savo kalbos žinias ir kokia gramatinė raiška būdinga jų kalbai; iš transkribuotos interviu medžiagos išrinkti kodų kaitos vienetus, juos suskirstyti į kodų kaitos grupes; aptarti kodų kaitos funkcijas nustatytose grupėse. Išanalizavus respondentų interviu ir ištyrus juose rastus 630 kodų kaitos vienetų, pastebėta, kad Amerikos lietuviams yra įprasčiau bendrauti anglų kalba, tuo tarpu lietuvių kalba bendraujama tik konkrečiose situacijose: su tėvais, seneliais, savo JAV gimusiais vaikais; norint nuslėpti pokalbio turinį, lituanistinėje mokykloje, lietuvių organizuojamuose renginiuose, darbe. Iš minėtų 630 kodų kaitos vienetų sudarytos penkios kodų kaitos grupės: diskurso žymekliai, tikriniai daiktavardžiai, terminai, citatos, žodžių trūkumas. Kodų kaitos vienetų funkcinė analizė parodė, kad dažniausiai angliški žodžiai vartojami, kai norima užpildyti pauzes; sujungti žodžius, posakius ir sakinius; pamiršus ar nežinant tam tikrų terminų, kultūrinių dalykų lietuvių kalba. / Code-switching of the second and the third Lithuanian generation living in the USA is being analyzed in this graduate paper. The chosen theme is very relevant and new, since neither Lithuanian American‘s nor Lithuanian‘s emigrated to other counties code-switching has been analyzed yet. Some goals were set to achieve objectives: to discuss the data of the study; according to the interview answers to define in what situations Lithuanian Americans usually communicate using the Lithuanian language, how they evaluate their knowledge of the native language themselves and what grammar expressions are typical in their speech; to choose code-switching units from the transcribed interview material and divide them into code-switching groups and to discuss the functions of code-switching in each group. The respondents‘ interviews were analyzed and 630 code-switching units were found. It has been noticed that for Lithuanian Americans it is common and more convenient to speak English while the Lithuanian language is used only in particular situations: talking with their parents, grandparents, children born in the USA in order to conceal the content of a conversation, in Lithuanian schools or in the events organized by the Lithuanians. Five code-switching groups were made from 630 code-switching units: discourse markers, proper nouns, terms, quotations and the lack of words. Code-switching units in these groups show that English words are more often used to avoid pauses, to link words... [to full text]

Focusing on a series of multiparty recordings carried out between the months of October and March 2012 and drawing on a theoretical framework based on work of linguists such as Auer (1999), Backus (2005), Bakker (2000), Maschler (2000) and Matras (2000a and 2000b), this thesis traces the evolution of a continuum of language alternation phenomena, ranging from simple code-switching to more complex forms of 'language alloying' (Alvarez- Càccamo 1998) such as mixed codes and fused lects in multilingual Mauritius. Following Auer (2001), the different conversational loci of code-switching are identified. Particular emphasis has been placed upon, amongst others, the conversational locus of playfulness where, for instance, participants' spontaneous lapses into song and dance sequences as they inspire themselves from Bollywood pop songs and creatively embed segments in Hindustani within a predominantly Kreol matrix are noted. Furthermore, in line with Auer (1999), Backus (2005) and Muysken (2000), emerging forms of language mixing such as changes in the way possessive marking is carried in Kreol and instances of semantic shift in Bhojpuri/ Hindustani words like nasha and daan have been highlighted and their pragmatic significance explained with specific reference to the Mauritian context. Finally, in the fused lect stage, specific attention has been provided to one key feature namely phonological blending which has resulted in the coinage of the discourse marker ashe and its eventual use in the process of discourse marker switching. In the light of the above findings, this thesis firstly critiques the strengths and weaknesses of the notion of the code switching (CS) continuum (Auer 1999) itself by revealing the difficulties encountered, at the empirical level, in assigning the correct label to the different types of language alternation phenomena evidenced in this thesis. In the second instance, it considers the impact of such shifts along the language alternation continuum upon language policy and planning in contemporary Mauritius and advocates for a move away from colonial language policies such as the 1957 Education Act in favour of updated ones that are responsive to the language practices of speakers. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Le phénomène de l'alternance codique a été connu et étudié depuis le début du XXe siècle. L'intérêt psycholinguistique à l'alternance codique orale a été suivi par des perspectives socio-pragmatiques dans la seconde moitié du XXe siècle ; puis vers la fin du siècle, l'attention des chercheurs a été attirée sur l'alternance codique écrite. Même si l'alternance codique a été bien étudié depuis, il y a encore quelques lacunes. Par exemple, l'intersection de l'écriture bilingue et la critique génétique présente une source de données naturalistes bilingues écrites qui restent fortement peu étudiées. Cette thèse tente de combler cette lacune en fournissant une analyse qualitative et quantitative des brouillons d'examen des apprenants de langue seconde. L'approche multimodale englobe la perspective visuelle, pragmatique et linguistique. Les résultats montrent que l'alternance codique représente un outil que les élèves utilisent habilement dans leur écriture personnelle académique. Néanmoins, les objectifs de son utilisation diffèrent non seulement entre les individus mais aussi entre les sociétés / communautés. Cela souligne la valeur sociolinguistique de l'écriture personnelle bilingue. Ce travail démontre également l'alternance codique dans l'écriture personnelle comme un type indépendant de l'alternance codique, qui peut prendre une place égale à côté de l'alternance codique orale, écrite et littéraire et qui mérite d'être étudié en tant que tel. / The phenomenon of code-switching has been known and researched since the beginning of the 20th century. The psycholinguistic interest in spoken code-switching was followed by socio-pragmatic perspectives in the second half of the 20th century; then towards the end of the century, researchers' attention was drawn to code-switching in writing. Even though language alternation has been well studied since, there are still some lacunae. For example, the intersection of bilingual writing and genetic criticism presents a source of naturalistic bilingual written data which remains significantly under-studied. The present thesis attempts to fill this gap by providing a qualitative and quantitative analysis of second-language learners' examination drafts. The multimodal approach encompasses the visual, the pragmatic and the linguistic perspectives. The findings show that code-switching represents a tool which students skillfully use in their academic personal writing. However, the purposes of its use differ not only among individuals but also among societies/communities. This emphasizes the sociolinguistic value of bilingual personal writing. This work also recognizes code-switching in personal writing as an independent type of code-switching, which can be placed in line with the oral, written and literary code-switching and which merits to be studied as such.