[pt] O presente trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar a influência de heterogeneidades metalúrgicas sobre o limiar de propagação de trincas de fadiga e apresentar alternativas de materiais para a fabricação de eixos virabrequins de motores Diesel / gás natural de unidades geradoras de plantas termoelétricas, uma vez que tais componentes mecânicos fabricados com aço DIN 34CrNiMo6 vêm apresentando falhas por fadiga com baixo número de ciclos de carregamento. Corpos de prova foram usinados de aços SAE 4140, SAE 4340 e DIN 42CrMo4. Inicialmente, conduziram-se ensaios de tração para a determinação das propriedades mecânicas dos materiais. Ensaios de propagação de trincas de fadiga foram realizados em espécimes do tipo C(T) entalhados, submetidos a um carregamento cíclico. Pré-trincas de fadiga, com comprimentos variando entre 1,3 mm e 1,6 mm, foram induzidas nos corpos de prova de acordo com a norma ASTM E647. Em sequência, foram levantadas as curvas da/dN versus delta K dos materiais, com ênfase para a determinação da variação do fator de intensidade de tensão do limiar de propagação (delta Kth) de cada aço. Neste contexto, o aço SAE 4140 apresentou um valor de (delta Kth) superior aos demais, o que significa que suporta maiores tamanhos de trinca antes do início da propagação. Análises por técnicas de microscopia evidenciaram a presença de inclusões na região de propagação das trincas, dando origem a um caminho preferencial para o crescimento das mesmas. Os resultados destas análises indicaram a presença de uma menor quantidade de inclusões no aço SAE 4140, permitindo uma associação desta característica microestrutural com o valor do delta Kth do material. Desta maneira, no que se refere à iniciação de trincas de fadiga, o aço SAE 4140 apresenta-se como alternativa viável para substituição do aço 34CrNiMo6 na fabricação de eixos virabrequins para motores de usinas termoelétricas. / [en] The present study had as objectives to evaluate the influence of metallurgical heterogeneities on the fatigue cracking propagation threshold and to present alternative materials for the manufacture of crankshafts of diesel / natural gas engines of thermoelectric plants generating units, since such components mechanics manufactured with DIN 34CrNiMo6 steel has been presenting faults due to fatigue with a low number of loading cycles. Test specimens were machined from SAE 4140, SAE 4340 and DIN 42CrMo4 steels. Initially, tensile tests were conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the materials. Fatigue crack propagation tests were performed on C(T) specimens subjected to cyclic loading. Fatigue pre-cracks, with lengths ranging from 1.3 mm to 1.6 mm, were induced in the test specimens according to ASTM E647. In sequence, da/dN versus delta K curves of the materials were raised, with emphasis on the determination of the tensile strength factor of the propagation threshold (delta Kth) of each steel. In this context, the steel SAE 4140 presented a value of (delta Kth) superior to the others, which means to support larger crack sizes before the beginning of the propagation. Analysis by microscopy techniques evidenced the presence of inclusions in the region of crack propagation, giving rise to a preferential path for their growth. The results of these analyzes indicated the presence of a smaller number of inclusions in the steel SAE 4140, allowing an association of this microstructural characteristic with the value of the delta Kth of the material. In this way, with regard to the initiation of fatigue cracks, the SAE 4140 steel is presented as a viable alternative for the replacement of 34CrNiMo6 steel in the manufacture of crankshafts for motors of thermoelectric power plants.

Este trabalho visa determinar a razão de carga cíclica R através da medida, na superficie de fratura, da relação entre a largura inter-estrias (s) e a altura da estria (H). É de conhecimento que o espaçamento (s) se correlaciona com a taxa de crescimento da trinca da/dN, enquanto que a curva da/dN x &#916K depende da razão de carga R. Para esta avaliação, corpos de prova do tipo compacto C(T) foram extraídos na orientação LT do centro de uma placa laminada da liga de alumínio SAE-AMS 7475 T7351 para realização dos ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga. Estes ensaios foram realizados de duas formas diferentes. A primeira, para obtenção de dados relativos à região II da curva da/dN x &#916K, sendo, neste caso, utilizadas quatro diferentes razões de carga (R=O,1; R=0,3; R=0,5; R=0,7). No outro caso, os ensaios de fadiga foram realizados sob &#916K constante e utilizados os mesmos quatro níveis de razão de carregamento R para determinação da curva da/dN x &#916K constante. Os níveis de &#916K aplicados foram tomados na região de Paris da curva da/dN x &#916K. A análise fratográfica por microscopia eletrônica foi conduzida nas superfícies dos corpos de prova do ensaio de fadiga com &#916K constante. Isto foi feito para determinar os espaçamentos inter-estria (s) e a altura H das estrias para cada nível de &#916K aplicado. Observou-se que a taxa de crescimento da trinca (da/dN) e o espaçamento inter-estrias (s) sofrem influência direta com a variação do fator de intensidade de tensão (&#916K), entretanto, observou-se, também, que a relação de proporcionalidade de 1:1 entre eles somente é válida para níveis de da/dN variando entre 0,1 a 1 &#956/ciclo. Os valores da morfologia da estrias (H/s) sofrem influência significativa com o aumento da razão de carga R, entretanto, ficou evidenciado que o fator de intensidade de tensão máxima Kmáx. não tem influência nesta relação. Evidenciou-se que a largura da estria corresponde à taxa de crescimento da trinca (da/dN), e que a relação entre a altura e o espaçamento da estria (H/s) possui uma correspondência direta com a razão de carga R, que tem influência significativa sobre a propagação de trinca por fadiga. / This work aims at to method to determine the load ratio R through of measure, on the fractured of surfaces the relation between the width striation spacing (s) and the height of the striation (H). It is of knowledge that the spacing (s), if correlates with the fatigue crack growth rates da/dN, whereas the curve da/dN x &#916K depends on the load ratio R. For this evaluation compact tension C(T) specimens had been extracted in the L- T orientation of a laminate plate of the aluminum alloy SAE-AMS 7475 T7351.These test had been carried out of two different forms. The first one, for attainment of relative data to region II of the curve da/dN x &#916K, being, in this in case that used four different load ratios (R=O,1; R=0,3; R=0,5; R=0,7). In the other in case that, the fatigue crack growth rates had been carried out under &#916K constant and used same the four levels of load ratios R for determination of the curve of constant da/dN x &#916K. The applied levels of &#916K had been taken in the region II of the curve da/dN x &#916K. The fractographic analysis for electronic microscopy was lead on the surfaces of the specimens tested in fatigue with constant &#916K. This was made to determine the striation spacing (s) and height (H) of the striations for each constant level of &#916K. It was observed that the fatigue crack growth rates (da/dN) and the striation spacing (s) suffers direct influence with the variation of &#916K. Also, was observed that the relation of proportionality of 1:1 between them is only valid for levels of da/dN in the range of 0,1 to 1,0 mm/cycle. The values of the relationship of the striation dimensions (H/s) suffer significant influence with the increasing of load ratios R. However, were evidenced that the value of Kmax. does not have influence in this relationship. It was found that the width of the striation corresponds to the value of (da/dN) and that the relation between the height and the striation of spacing (H/s) had a direct correspondence with the load ratios R that has signifficant effect on the fatigue crack growth rates.

Les alliages d'aluminium utilisés dans les structures aéronautiques (fuselage, voilure) sont soumis à des chargements cycliques, faisant de la fatigue l'un des facteurs dimensionnant. Dans cette thèse, les mécanismes d'amorçage de ces fissures de fatigue – au niveau des particules intermétalliques – et de micropropagation sont étudiés expérimentalement et numériquement sur les alliages 2050-T8 et 7050-T7451. Les analyses des premiers chapitres portent sur la description des particules intermétalliques qui sont les plus susceptibles de donner lieu à une amorce de fissure dans la matrice d'aluminium. Les effets de la nature des particules et de leur taille sont quantifiés. La proximité entre les particules intermétalliques et les pores y est décrite. Cette analyse expérimentale fait intervenir des observations de surface en microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB), ainsi que des caractérisations tridimensionnelles (3D) réalisées à l'aide de la tomographie par rayonnement synchrotron. Dans les chapitres suivants, les analyses traitent de la prévision des chemins de fissuration à l'échelle d'un grain. Elles s'appuient sur des observations expérimentales de surface et des simulations de plasticité cristalline 3D pour comprendre les chemins de fissuration. Un modèle d'endommagement tenant compte de la cristallographie est alors proposé pour simuler la propagation de fissure par éléments finis. / Aluminium alloys used for aerospace structures (wing, fuselage) are subjected to cyclic loading. Fatigue properties of such alloys are therefore taken into account for the design of such parts. In this thesis, initiation mechanisms of fatigue cracks – near intermetallic particles – and micropropagation are studied experimentally and numerically on alloys 2050-T8 and 7050-T7451. In the first chapters, the analysis focuses on intermetallic particles which are most prone to initiate a fatigue crack in the aluminium matrix. The effects of the nature of particles as well as their size are quantified. The proximity between intermetallic particles and pores is described. This experimental analysis use surface observations obtained with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and three-dimensional (3D) characterizations using synchrotron tomography. In the last chapters, analysis are oriented towards the prediction of crack paths at the grain size. They rely on surface experimental observations and 3D crystal plasticity modelling in order to understand crack paths. A damage model taking into account crystallography is proposed to simulate crack propagation using the finite element method.

O Jateamento com granalha (shot peening, em inglês) é um processo de fabricação amplamente utilizado em indústrias mecânicas, automotivas, navais, aeronáuticas e outras indústrias metalúrgicas. O objetivo principal é induzir tensões residuais de compressão para melhorar a vida à fadiga das peças e estruturas. A modelagem e simulação do processo são muito difíceis, pois envolvem a consideração de muitos e complexos aspectos. Este trabalho propõe um método de modelagem tridimensional utilizando o método dos elementos finitos para a simulação numérica desse processo assim como a sua influência na propagação de trinca, considerando efeitos pouco estudados, como o amolecimento do material devido ao aumento da temperatura na peça durante os impactos, ao comportamento elasto-plástico das granalhas e a rugosidade da peça tratada nos parâmetros da trinca. A modelagem proposta para simular o processo de jateamento com granalhas inclui: (i) análise dinâmica explícita, (ii) modelagem tridimensional, (iii) cálculo da velocidade real das granalhas, (iv) modelo de contato com coeficientes de atrito estático e dinâmico entre as áreas em contato, (v) o modelo constitutivo de Johnson-Cook para o comportamento do material alvo, (vi) um comportamento elasto-plástico multilinear para as granalhas, (vii) a consideração da cobertura real de uma área dada da superfície jateada, (viii) a consideração do aumento da temperatura no material durante o processo e (ix) o relaxamento de tensões residuais devido a este aumento de temperatura. As simulações numérico-computacionais para investigar a influência do processo em fenômenos, tais como fadiga e propagação de trinca, necessitou uma nova abordagem para a incorporação das tensões residuais num modelo de elementos finitos. Além disso, foram realizados vários ensaios quase-estáticos e dinâmicos para a determinação dos parâmetros do modelo constitutivo de Johnson-Cook para o aço AISI 5160. Para a avaliação das metodologias propostas, as tensões residuais foram introduzidas e avaliadas em uma mola parabólica automotiva, sendo que as tensões residuais foram avaliadas através da técnica de difração de raios-X, a intensidade e a cobertura do processo de jateamento com granalha na mola foram avaliadas com Lupa e rugosímetro. Também, dados experimentais de ensaios de fadiga relatados na literatura, realizados em corpos de prova tipo CT foram utilizados. A modelagem numérica do processo de jateamento com granalha desenvolvida neste trabalho consegue prever com sucesso os perfis das tensões residuais, com valores bem próximos aos obtidos experimentalmente. A investigação numérica do efeito do processo na vida à fadiga e fratura das peças comprovou a sua influência nos parâmetros de propagação de trinca nas regiões afetadas pelo processo, ocasionando um amplo aumento da vida à fadiga, e confirmou o relaxamento das tensões residuais devido aos ciclos de carregamento conforme as observações experimentais na literatura. / Shot peening is a manufacturing process widely used in the mechanical, automotive, marine, aeronautical and other metallurgical industries. The main purpose is to induce residual compression stresses to improve fatigue life. The modeling and simulation of the process are very difficult as they involve the consideration of many and complex aspects. This work proposes a three-dimensional modelling method using the finite element method for the numerical simulation of this process as well as its influence on crack propagation, considering little studied effects such as softening of the material due to the increase in temperature in the part during impacts , the elastic-plastic behavior of the shot and the roughness of the treated part in the crack parameters. The proposed modelling approach to simulate the shot peening process includes: (i) explicit dynamic analysis, (ii) three-dimensional modeling, (iii) calculation of the real velocity of the shot, (iv) contact model with static and dynamic friction coefficients between the contact areas, (v) the Johnson-Cook constitutive model for target material behavior, (vi) a multilinear elasto-plastic behavior for the shot, (vii) consideration of real coverage in a given area of the peened surface, (viii) consideration of temperature increase in the material during the process and (ix) relaxation of residual stresses due to this rise in temperature. Numerical-computational simulations to investigate the influence of the shot peening process on phenomena, such as fatigue and crack propagation, required a new approach for the incorporation of residual stress in a finite element model. In addition, several quasi-static and dynamic tests were carried out to determine the parameters of the constitutive Johnson-Cook model for AISI 5160 steel. To assess the proposed methodologies, the residual stresses were introduced and evaluated in an automotive parabolic spring, with the residual stresses being evaluated by the X-ray diffraction technique, the intensity and coverage of the shot peening process for the spring were evaluated with magnifying glass and roughness gauge. Also, fatigue tests available in the literature, carried out on types of CT specimens, were used. The numerical modeling of the shot peening process developed in this work can successfully predict the residual stress profiles, with values close to those obtained experimentally. The numerical investigation of the effect of the process in the fatigue life and fracture of the pieces proved its influence in the parameters of crack propagation in the regions affected by the process, causing a wide increase of the fatigue life, and confirmed the relaxation of the residual stresses due to the cycles loading according to experimental observations in the literature.

Fatigue cracking is one of the most common distresses of asphalt pavements, whereas healing is a counter process to cracking which alleviates cracking damage and extends fatigue life of asphalt pavements. Most of existing methods to characterize fatigue cracking and healing are generally empirical or phenomenological in nature, which does not satisfy the need to develop mechanistic-based pavement design methods. The objective of this study is to characterize fatigue cracking and healing of asphalt mixtures using an energy-based mechanistic approach. A controlled-strain repeated direct tension (RDT) test is selected to generate both fatigue cracking and permanent deformation in an asphalt mixture specimen. Fatigue cracking is separated from permanent deformation from a mechanical viewpoint. The development of fatigue cracking is described by the evolution of the damage density and the increase of the average crack size with the increase of loading cycles. A creep and step-loading recovery (CSR) test is designed to measure the internal stress in the recovery phase of an asphalt mixture specimen. The internal stress and the strain measured in the recovery phase are used to conduct the mechanistic analysis of recovery and healing of the asphalt mixture specimen. Then healing is described using the decrease of the damage density and average crack size with time. Different types of asphalt mixtures produce distinctly different fatigue cracking and healing characteristics. The effect of mixture composition, temperature, and aging are evaluated using the approach above. The entire series of tests for fatigue, permanent deformation and healing can be completed in one day, with the healing part requiring only a matter of minutes. The methods proposed in this study characterize fatigue cracking and healing of asphalt mixtures using its essential cause and effect relationship.

Fretting fatigue is a damage process that may arise in engineering applications where small cyclic relative displacements develop inside contacts leading to detrimental effects on the material fatigue properties. Fretting is located in regions not easily accessible, which makes it a dangerous phenomenon. It is therefore important to be able to make reliable predictions of the fretting fatigue lives. The work presented in this thesis has its focus on different aspects related to fretting fatigue in the titanium alloy Ti-17. A fretting experiment was developed which allowed for separate control of the three main fretting loads. Initially, the evolution of the coefficient of friction inside the slip region was investigated experimentally and analytically. Subsequently, 28 fretting tests were performed in which large fatigue cracks developed. The fretting tests were firstly evaluated with respect to fatigue crack initiation through five multiaxial fatigue criteria. The criteria predicted a too high fretting fatigue limit. A possible clue to the discrepancy was found in the fretting induced surface roughness with the asperity-pit interactions. The fatigue growth of the large fretting cracks was numerically modelled through a parametric crack growth procedure. The predicted lives were compared to the experimental outcome. The numerical simulations showed that linear elastic fracture mechanics was an appropriate tool for the prediction of fretting fatigue propagation lives in the long crack regime. Fatigue cracks spend most of their propagation life in the small crack regime. The possibility of modelling the small crack behaviour is therefore very important from the engineering point of view. The fatigue growth of through thickness short cracks was studied experimentally and numerically in the four-point bend configuration. It was found that linear elastic fracture mechanics and closure-free material growth data furnished conservative estimates for cracks longer than 50 μm. One method to improve fretting fatigue life is to shot peen the contact surfaces. Experimental results on fretting life with or without shot peening were simulated. The fatigue life enhancement in shot peened specimens could be explained by slower crack growth in the surface material layer with residual compressive stresses. / QC 20100827

Design based on damage tolerance concepts has become mandatory in high technology structures. These concepts are also essential for evaluating life extension of aged structures which are in service beyond originally stipulated life. Fracture analysis of such structures in the presence of single or multiple three-dimensional flaws is essential for this approach. Surface cracks are the most commonly occurring flaws and development of accurate methods of analysis for such cracks is essential for structural integrity evaluation of newly designed or aged structures. The crack fronts of these surface flaws are usually approximated mathematically to be of either part-elliptical or part-circular in geometry. In this thesis, some of the issues related to fatigue crack growth of single and multiple surface cracks are studied in detail. Here emphasis is given to the development of simple and accurate post-processing techniques to estimate stress intensity factors for surface cracks, development and/or implementation of simple numerical methods to simulate three-dimensional single and multiple cracks in fatigue and their experimental verification. Modified virtual crack closure integral (MVCCI) technique for estimation of strain energy release rates has been improved (chapter II) to deal with curved crack front and unequal elements across the crack front. The accuracy of this method is evaluated and presented in this chapter for certain benchmark surface flaw problems. The improved MVCCI is used in the investigation of interaction between multiple surface cracks in three-dimensional solids. The interaction effects are studied for both interacting and coalescing phases as observed to occur in the growth of multiple surface cracks. Extensive numerical work is performed to study the effects of various parameters such as aspect ratio, thickness ratio, interspacing on the interaction factors. These solutions are used in formulating empirical equations to estimate interaction factors. This facilitated the development of a simple semi-analytical method to study fatigue crack growth of multiple cracks. The growth of surface cracks under fatigue loading in the finite width specimens of an aero-engine superalloy has been studied experimentally (presented in chapter III). Four configurations for single semi-elliptical cracks are considered. Fatigue crack growth is simulated by two models viz. two degrees of freedom and "multi degrees of freedom with ellipse fit'. These models are sometimes referred to as semi-analytical models as the crack growth is predicted by numerical integration combining Paris equation with an empirical form of stress intensity factor solution. In order to use two degrees of freedom model for fatigue crack growth prediction of semi-elliptical cracks, empirical solution for the Ml range of geometric parameters for stress intensity factor is required for the considered configurations. The available Newman-Raju solution is useful for this purpose within a limited range of surface crack length to width (c/W) of the specimen. Based on the present finite element results, the empirical equations are developed for extended values of c/W. It is well understood that the fatigue prediction for two-dimensional crack can be improved by inclusion of crack closure effects. Usually, in semi-analytical models for growth of surface cracks under fatigue loading, the crack closure is included as a ratio of crack closure factor at surface and depth locations of semi-elliptical crack. In the present work, this ratio for the considered material of specimens is obtained by an experimental study. The difference in characteristics of preferred propagation path between semi-elliptical crack in a finite width plate and a wide plate is clearly brought out. Current crack growth predictions for most of the structures are based on the presence of only a single crack. However, in structures several cracks may initiate simultaneously within a stress critical zone and may interact depending upon their geometry, spatial location, structure geometry and mode of loading. In this work various configurations of twin semi-elliptical cracks have been studied by experiments. The beachmarks created on the specimens during experiments are used in the investigation of crack shape progression during fatigue. A three degrees of freedom crack growth model for interacting and coalescing cracks has been proposed. The experimentally determined crack shape and lives have been compared with the corresponding values from numerical simulation. The correlation of experimental results with numerical predictions was carried out through improved MVCCI for eight-noded brick elements. This has worked well in the configurations analysed. However, it is known in literature that there are benefits of using 20-noded singular elements. There could be special situations where the regular elements could fail, and singular elements could be essential. For this purpose, further development of MVCCI were carried out using 20-noded quarter-point elements (presented in chapter IV). Also a novel technique of decomposed crack closure integral (DCCI) was developed (presented in chapter V) for both regular and singular elements to represent the variation of MVCCI more accurately along the crack front. It is well known that quarter-point elements at crack front produce the required singularity at the crack tip and give accurate stress distribution with fewer degrees of freedom than conventional elements. Thus to develop more efficient post-processing tools, the MVCCI expressions are formulated for 20-noded singular quarter-point element for various assumptions regarding stress and displacement distributions in the elements across the crack front. A comprehensive study is presented (chapter IV) on MVCCI for 20-noded singular brick element including various simplified expressions for three-dimensional part-through cracks in pure and mixed-mode state of deformation of fracture. The developed MVCCI expressions are also valid for 15-noded quarter-point Penta elements. The reduction in model size can further be obtained if 12-noded three-dimensional singular element is employed at the crack front and eight-noded elements are used away from the crack front. The MVCCI expressions are also developed for 12-noded singular element and their accuracy is evaluated by numerical solutions. Presently, MVCCI, estimates the average stress intensity factor at the center of each element along the crack front. In this thesis, a Decomposed Crack Closure Integral (DCCI) is formulated to represent an assumed variation of stress intensity factor along the crack front in each element. The DCCI is formulated for 8-noded brick, 20-noded conventional brick and 20-noded singular brick elements. The numerical examples presented here deal with three-dimensional problems of patch repair technology and part-through cracks. The technique showed a major advantage for the patch repair problems where SIF variations along the crack front are of significance and large mesh sizes are computationally expensive. This along with MVCCI for 12-noded and 20-noded singular elements formed a part of the work on development of accurate and effective post-processing tools. It is expected that the present work will be helpful in damage tolerance design and assessment of aerospace structures and the experimental work performed as a part of this thesis will enhance confidence in the damage tolerance analysis. The thesis is concluded in chapter VI presenting the contributions of this thesis and projecting future lines of work possible in this area.

The design of complex structures demands the prediction of possible fracture-dominant failure processes, due to the existence of unavoidable preexistent flaws and other defects, as well as sharps and cracks. On one hand, the complexity of the structure and the presence of many defects to be accounted for in the modeling can become the computational effort impracticable. On the other hand, it is important to seek the development of a computational framework based on some numerical method to study these problems. A way to overcome the difficulties mentioned, therefore making feasible the analysis of complex structures with many cracks, flaws and other defects, consists of combining a representative mechanical modeling with an efficient numerical method. This is precisely the fundamental aim of this work. Firstly, the Splitting Method is used aiming to build a representative modeling. Secondly, the Generalized Finite Element Method (GFEM) is chosen as an efficient numerical method, in which enrichment strategies of the approximated solution using stress functions in particular can be explored. The GFEM framework also allows avoiding the excessive refinement of the mesh, which increases the computational effort in conventional finite element analysis. In the Splitting Method, a kind of decomposition method, the original problem is subdivided in local and global problems which are then combined by imposing null traction at the crack surfaces. In this work, the Splitting Method was completely programmed in Python language and its use extended to analyze crack propagation including fatigue crack growth. The generated code presents in addition to several features related to Fracture Mechanics concepts, as the computation of the stress intensity factor (mode I and II) trough J Integral. Some examples are presented to depict the propagation of the cracks in multisite damage structures. It is shown that for this kind of problems the enrichment strategy provided by GFEM is essential. Moreover, the final example demonstrates that the computational tool allows for investigation of different possible crack scenarios with a low cost analysis. One concludes about the representativeness and efficiency of the methodology hereby proposed. / O projeto de estruturas complexas demanda a previsão de possíveis processos de ruptura governados por fraturamento, devido à existência de inevitáveis defeitos pré-existentes, como entalhes e fissuras. Por um lado, a complexidade da estrutura e a presença de muitos defeitos a serem considerados no modelo podem tornar a análise inviável devido ao esforço computacional necessário. Por outro lado, é importante procurar desenvolver uma estrutura computacional baseada em métodos numéricos para estudar estes problemas. Um modo de superar as dificuldades mencionadas, portanto tornando possível a análise de estruturas complexas com muitas fissuras e outros defeitos, consiste em combinar um modelo mecânico que seja representativo com um método numérico eficiente. Este é precisamente o objetivo fundamental deste trabalho. Primeiramente, o Método da Partição é utilizado para a construção de um modelo representativo. Em segundo lugar, o Método dos Elementos Finitos Generalizados (GFEM) é empregado por ser um método numérico eficiente, no qual as estratégias de enriquecimento da solução aproximada usando funções de tensão, em particular, podem ser exploradas. A estrutura do GFEM também permite evitar o excessivo refinamento da malha, que aumenta o esforço computacional em análises convencionais nas quais se utiliza o método dos elementos finitos. No Método da Partição, um tipo de método de decomposição, o problema original é subdividido em problemas locais e globais que são então combinados impondo-se a nulidade do vetor de tensões na superfície da fissura. Neste trabalho, o Método da Partição foi completamente programado em linguagem Python® e sua utilização estendida para analisar a propagação de fissuras, incluindo-se a associação do crescimento com a resposta em fadiga. Além disso, o código gerado apresenta diversas características relacionadas aos conceitos da Mecânica da Fratura, como o cálculo do fator de intensidade de tensão (modos I e II) mediante a Integral J. Alguns exemplos são apresentados para ilustrar a propagação de fissuras em estruturas multi-fraturadas. Mostra-se que para este tipo de problemas a estratégia de enriquecimento fornecida pelo GFEM é essencial. Além disso, o exemplo final comprova que a ferramenta computacional permite a investigação de diferentes possíveis cenários de fissuras com uma análise de baixo custo. Conclui-se sobre a representatividade e eficiência da metodologia proposta.

Caracterizar propriedades de resistência à propagação de trinca em materiais dúcteis é um elemento central em métodos de avaliação de integridade estrutural de dutos destinados ao transporte de gás, petróleo e seus derivados que utilizam os aços ARBL. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar as propriedades de fratura dúctil do aço API 5L X80, através da obtenção da curva de resistência à propagação estável de defeitos (curvas J-R) do material. O ensaio de tenacidade à fratura para obtenção da curva J-R foi conduzido utilizando a técnica do corpo-de-prova único (single specimen) empregando o método da flexibilidade no descarregamento (unloading compliance), segundo a norma de ensaios ASTM E1820-96. Os corpos-de-prova compactos C(T) apresentaram espessura B=15mm, largura W=2B e uma relação aproximada entre o tamanho de trinca (a) e a largura, a/W=0,6. O ensaio foi conduzido numa máquina universal de ensaios (MTS) servo-controlada e capacidade máxima de 250kN. Adicionalmente, foram conduzidos ensaios convencionais de tração (limite de escoamento – 550MPa, limite de resistência – 676MPa e alongamento total em 50mm – 27%), ensaios de impacto Charpy (energia absorvida de 220J à 0ºC – sentido longitudinal) e análises metalográficas (microestrutura refinada composta por ferrita, colônias de perlita e presença do constituinte MA). Tais caracterizações permitirão uma maior precisão na comparação da curva J-R do aço API 5L X80 em estudo com estudos futuros de tenacidade à fratura. / Assessments of crack growth resistance in ductile materials play a key role in structural integrity procedures for high strength, low alloy (HSLA) pipeline steels commonly employed in gas and petroleum trasmission systems. This work presents an investigation of the ductile tearing properties for an API 5L X80 pipeline steel using experimentally measured crack growth resistance curves (J-R curves) for the material. Testing of the X80 pipeline steel employed compact tension (C(T)) fracture specimens to determine the J-R curves based upon the unloading compliance method using a single specimen technique in accordance with the ASTM E1820 standard procedure. The C(T) specimens have thickness B=15mm, width W=2B and a ratio between crack size (a) and width, a/W=0,6. The experimental tests utilized a 250 kN MTS universal machine. Conventional tensile tests were also performed to determine the tensile properties for the tested material: yield strength of 550MPa, tensile strength of 676MPa and elongation of 27% (gage length of 50 mm). The Charpy V-notch impact tests also provided and absorbed energy of 220J at 0ºC. The metallographic analysis showed colonies of perlite and MA constituent islands in a ferrite matrix. This experimental characterization provides additional toughness and mechanical data against which the general behavior of X80 class pipeline steel can be compared.

Este trabalho visa determinar a razão de carga cíclica R através da medida, na superficie de fratura, da relação entre a largura inter-estrias (s) e a altura da estria (H). É de conhecimento que o espaçamento (s) se correlaciona com a taxa de crescimento da trinca da/dN, enquanto que a curva da/dN x &#916K depende da razão de carga R. Para esta avaliação, corpos de prova do tipo compacto C(T) foram extraídos na orientação LT do centro de uma placa laminada da liga de alumínio SAE-AMS 7475 T7351 para realização dos ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga. Estes ensaios foram realizados de duas formas diferentes. A primeira, para obtenção de dados relativos à região II da curva da/dN x &#916K, sendo, neste caso, utilizadas quatro diferentes razões de carga (R=O,1; R=0,3; R=0,5; R=0,7). No outro caso, os ensaios de fadiga foram realizados sob &#916K constante e utilizados os mesmos quatro níveis de razão de carregamento R para determinação da curva da/dN x &#916K constante. Os níveis de &#916K aplicados foram tomados na região de Paris da curva da/dN x &#916K. A análise fratográfica por microscopia eletrônica foi conduzida nas superfícies dos corpos de prova do ensaio de fadiga com &#916K constante. Isto foi feito para determinar os espaçamentos inter-estria (s) e a altura H das estrias para cada nível de &#916K aplicado. Observou-se que a taxa de crescimento da trinca (da/dN) e o espaçamento inter-estrias (s) sofrem influência direta com a variação do fator de intensidade de tensão (&#916K), entretanto, observou-se, também, que a relação de proporcionalidade de 1:1 entre eles somente é válida para níveis de da/dN variando entre 0,1 a 1 &#956/ciclo. Os valores da morfologia da estrias (H/s) sofrem influência significativa com o aumento da razão de carga R, entretanto, ficou evidenciado que o fator de intensidade de tensão máxima Kmáx. não tem influência nesta relação. Evidenciou-se que a largura da estria corresponde à taxa de crescimento da trinca (da/dN), e que a relação entre a altura e o espaçamento da estria (H/s) possui uma correspondência direta com a razão de carga R, que tem influência significativa sobre a propagação de trinca por fadiga. / This work aims at to method to determine the load ratio R through of measure, on the fractured of surfaces the relation between the width striation spacing (s) and the height of the striation (H). It is of knowledge that the spacing (s), if correlates with the fatigue crack growth rates da/dN, whereas the curve da/dN x &#916K depends on the load ratio R. For this evaluation compact tension C(T) specimens had been extracted in the L- T orientation of a laminate plate of the aluminum alloy SAE-AMS 7475 T7351.These test had been carried out of two different forms. The first one, for attainment of relative data to region II of the curve da/dN x &#916K, being, in this in case that used four different load ratios (R=O,1; R=0,3; R=0,5; R=0,7). In the other in case that, the fatigue crack growth rates had been carried out under &#916K constant and used same the four levels of load ratios R for determination of the curve of constant da/dN x &#916K. The applied levels of &#916K had been taken in the region II of the curve da/dN x &#916K. The fractographic analysis for electronic microscopy was lead on the surfaces of the specimens tested in fatigue with constant &#916K. This was made to determine the striation spacing (s) and height (H) of the striations for each constant level of &#916K. It was observed that the fatigue crack growth rates (da/dN) and the striation spacing (s) suffers direct influence with the variation of &#916K. Also, was observed that the relation of proportionality of 1:1 between them is only valid for levels of da/dN in the range of 0,1 to 1,0 mm/cycle. The values of the relationship of the striation dimensions (H/s) suffer significant influence with the increasing of load ratios R. However, were evidenced that the value of Kmax. does not have influence in this relationship. It was found that the width of the striation corresponds to the value of (da/dN) and that the relation between the height and the striation of spacing (H/s) had a direct correspondence with the load ratios R that has signifficant effect on the fatigue crack growth rates.