<p>Medical paternalism is a common practice in Pakistan, it can be justified on the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence in certain clinical situations but in the research medicine it can pose many ethical implications.</p><p>Islam is a communitarian religion but it provides full autonomy to the competent individuals. Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PM&DC) codes of ethics have been formulated in line with the World Medical Association and it also states in its preamble that it follows Islamic bioethical laws. The PM&DC guidelines do not provide substantial system for obtaining consent from patients and the research participants. Neither does it comply with the Islamic bioethical laws nor with the International Declarations. The language used in the codes is ambiguous that can have different interpretations and there is no legal support from the civil law of the country. These factors supplemented with the cultural values have elevated the status of the physician and gives complete authority to them for medical decisions.</p><p>Medical paternalism in research medicine can be a violation of the dignity and autonomy of the research participants. Patients are used as means and commodities rather than end in themselves. The research involves risks of harms no matter how low these risks are – the matter of concern is that research participants are involved in research accompanied with risks about which they are not aware.</p>

The aim of this work is to present and examine the ruling on which the Colombian Constitutional Court declared the blanket criminalization of induced abortion to be unconstitutional: ruling C-355/061; all of this based in the understanding I have achieved of the Courts’ reasoning. In the first section I will present the norms that constituted the blanket prohibition of abortion, as well as the likely situation of its practice, both by the time the Constitutional Court took up the analysis of the former. This will provide a good understanding of the importance of the ruling and its starting point. In the second section I will put forth the general nature of the Court and its rulings, inscribed in the Colombian social, political and legal transformation brought by the 1991 constitutional change. I will also bring in the specific decisions the Court made regarding the conditioned constitutionality of induced abortion and the unconstitutionality of the legal expression that equated an abortion performed on a woman less than fourteen years of age to an abortion without consent, thus punishing it harder than a consented one. Such verdict is the starting point of an effort to trace, present and examine the ethical arguments the Court has woven to reach it, all of which will be undertaken in the third section. In the fourth section I shall elaborate on two of the common ethical elements that work as corner stones for the Court’s arguments: human dignity and the belief that fundamental rights and constitutional protected goods are not absolute; I will particularly point out how they play a role in the Court’s argumentation. As a conclusion I will offer a final general appraisal of the Court’s work.

Medical paternalism is a common practice in Pakistan, it can be justified on the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence in certain clinical situations but in the research medicine it can pose many ethical implications. Islam is a communitarian religion but it provides full autonomy to the competent individuals. Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PM&amp;DC) codes of ethics have been formulated in line with the World Medical Association and it also states in its preamble that it follows Islamic bioethical laws. The PM&amp;DC guidelines do not provide substantial system for obtaining consent from patients and the research participants. Neither does it comply with the Islamic bioethical laws nor with the International Declarations. The language used in the codes is ambiguous that can have different interpretations and there is no legal support from the civil law of the country. These factors supplemented with the cultural values have elevated the status of the physician and gives complete authority to them for medical decisions. Medical paternalism in research medicine can be a violation of the dignity and autonomy of the research participants. Patients are used as means and commodities rather than end in themselves. The research involves risks of harms no matter how low these risks are – the matter of concern is that research participants are involved in research accompanied with risks about which they are not aware.

The research in the field of biotechnology is rapidly developing all over the world. Modern biotechnology offers unique opportunities, simultaneously as it gives rise to a number of ethical issues. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), PGD/HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigen) and germline gene therapy (GLGT) are controversial techniques. PGD gives a possibility to identify a genetic disease prior to the embryo’s implantation in the uterus. PGD/HLA involves selecting an embryo with genes coding for a specific tissue type, so that the child to be born can act as a donor to an existing sibling who requires a stem cell transplant. GLGT seeks to eliminate or change “bad” genes. The purpose of this study is to investigate student’s ethical attitude concerning PGD, PGD/HLA and GLGT. The empirical study was based on focus group discussions. Four group interviews were made, with 15 participants in all. The students are taking courses in biology or religion. The result from the interviews shows that the ethical issues are difficult to have a definite opinion in, because there are possibilities and risks involved in all these techniques, according to the students. A central part of the discussion was devoted to human dignity and the moral status of the embryo. They also see risks such as bioterrorism, designing the perfect humans, economic interests, medical risks, among many other risks. / Forskningen på det bioteknologiska området utvecklas snabbt över hela världen. Den moderna bioteknologin erbjuder unika möjligheter, samtidigt som den ger upphov till en rad frågor av etiskt slag. Preimplantatorisk genetisk diagnostik (PGD), PGD/HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigen) och zygotisk genterapi är kontroversiella tekniker. PGD ger en möjlighet att identifiera genetiska sjukdomar före embryots implantering i livmodern. Med hjälp av PGD/HLA väljs ett embryo ut vars gener kodar för en specifik vävnadstyp, vilket gör att barnet som föds kan fungera som donator till ett existerande syskon som är i behov av en stamcells transplantation. Med zygotisk genterapi kan man ta bort eller byta ut ”dåliga” gener. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka studenters etiska värderingar rörande PGD, PGD/HLA och zygotisk genterapi. Den empiriska studien baserades på fokusgrupp diskussioner. Fyra gruppintervjuer gjordes, med sammanlagt 15 deltagare. Studenterna studerar på programutbildningar i biologi eller religion. Resultatet från intervjuerna visar att de etiska frågeställningarna är svåra att ha en klar uppfattning om, eftersom det finns möjligheter och risker med alla dessa tekniker, enligt studenterna. En central del av diskussionen ägnades åt människovärdet och embryots moraliska status. De ser också risker som bioterrorism, designa perfekta människor, ekonomiska intressen, medicinska risker, bland många andra risker.

Eutanasifrågan är ständigt aktuell i vårddebatten. En etisk granskning utgör grund för föreliggande arbete, där etiska begrepp och principer ställts i förhållande till eutanasi. Eutanasi definieras i praxis, såsom att en läkare avsiktligt avslutar patientens liv genom administrering av en dödlig läkemedelsdos. Syftet var att belysa etiska aspekter kring eutanasi. Fjorton vetenskapliga artiklar analyserades, vilka utgjorde grunden för resultatets två teman: etiska aspekter som talar för eutanasi och etiska aspekter som talar mot eutanasi. I resultatet framhävdes självbestämmanderätten som ett argument för att eutanasi var etiskt försvarbart. Självbestämmanderätten ansågs även vara applicerbar vid frågor gällande döden. Av studien framstod autonomi vid livets slutskede som komplext, då påverkan från närstående, sjukvårdspersonal samt avsaknaden av medicinsk kunskap kunde föranleda icke-autonoma beslut. Outhärdligt lidande framkom som ett starkt argument för att eutanasi var etiskt försvarbart, men flertalet ansåg dock att den palliativa vården är tillräcklig för att lindra lidandet. Känslan av förlorad värdighet föranledde patienters önskan om eutanasi, strävan efter den goda döden framkom ideligen i artiklarna. I Sverige bör kunskap om eutanasi sökas genom att studera forskning gjord i de länder där eutanasi är legalt, vilket kan ge en fördjupad insikt kring vilka etiska aspekter som lyfts i eutanasidebatten i dessa länder. / Euthanasia is constantly current in the health-care debate. An ethical review forms the foundation for the present work, in which ethical concepts and principles set in relation to euthanasia. Euthanasia is defined in practice that a physician intentionally ends a patient's life by administering a lethal dose of medicine. The aim was to highlight the ethical aspects of euthanasia. Fourteen scientific articles were analyzed, which constitute the basis of the result's two themes: ethical aspects in favor of euthanasia and ethical aspects spoken against euthanasia. The results highlighted autonomy as an argument for euthanasia, self-determination was also considered applicable to issues regarding death. Autonomy at the end of life is complex, the influence of relatives, medical personnel and the lack of medical knowledge could lead to non-autonomous decisions. Unbearable suffering emerged as a strong argument for euthanasia, though many felt that palliative care is sufficient. The sense of loss of dignity caused desire euthanasia, the pursuit of the good death appeared constantly in the articles. In Sweden, Knowledge about euthanasia could be provided by studying research done in countries where euthanasia is legal, which can provide a deeper insight about the ethical aspects raised in the euthanasia debate in these countries.

Sammanfattning Syftet med denna litteraturstudie var att belysa patienters syn på sin omvårdnad avseende integritet och värdighet vid sjukhusvistelse. Designen var en deskriptiv litteraturstudie och artiklar hämtades från databaserna Academic Search Elite, Cinahl och Medline via PubMed. Resultatet i denna studie visar att omgivning och arkitektoniska miljöer är framtonande orsaker till patienters negativa upplevelser i vården. Kommunikativa svårigheter och utebliven information om medicinska åtgärder och undersökningar, tillsammans med personalens bemötande och beteende, gör att patienters integritet och värdighet åsidosätts. Vårdtagarna vill känna delaktighet i sin vård och få information om sin situation vilket stärker känslan av att de behandlas med respekt från vårdpersonalens sida. Etiska kränkningar av patienters integritet och värdighet, under sjukhusvistelse, är i stort beroende av vårdpersonalens agerande vid vårdsituationer där patienter blottas eller utsätts för undersökningar utan tillräckligt skydd runt patienten. Slutsatsen för studien visar att mer informerande utbildning om integritet och värdighet behövs i vården tillsammans med ytterligare explorativ forskning i ämnet. / Abstract The aim of this study was to illuminate patients' views on their care for privacy and dignity due to their stay at a hospital. The design was a descriptive literature review and the articles were retrieved from the databases Academic Search Elite, Cinahl and Medline via PubMed. The result of this study shows that environment and architectural surroundings causes negative experiences for patients' in care. Communication difficulties and lack of information about medical procedures and examinations, along with staff's attitude and behavior, makes the patients' privacy and dignity disregarded. Health care consumers want to feel involved in their care and get information about their situation, which strengthens the feeling that they are treated with respect from medical personnel. Ethical violations of patient privacy and dignity during the hospital stay, is largely dependent on health professionals' conduct in the care setting where patients are exposed or subjected to investigations without adequate environmental protection around the patient. The conclusion of the study shows that more informative education is needed in health care concerning privacy and dignity together with further exploratory research on the subject.

The human rights have a general value, Its key content is fully respect for human nature dignity. For the protection of the personal fundamental right is the most concrete behavior to human nature dignity, Most people is argue for personal fundamental right strongly, For the purpose is reflect the value of personal subject, but not depend on the country or the other personal tool. For a long time¡Athe probationers are downgrade and from the common people get that difference treated, fundamental right¡¦s protect ought to be paid attention to and paid close attention to. The text since being the constitutional foundation to research the job right, inhabit the freedom of remove, the self-determination right of information, and even serve in the army some. With the discussion of this text, I expect to be able to distinguish the guide orientation of the criminal policy for country further, besides complementing with various kinds of tactics and application that handle, Must has the concept on people's fundamental right protect even more. I believe that our country will running of the law only like this, the practice achievement that human rights runs a country, fully respecting with emphasized to all people's human nature dignity.

<p>The research in the field of biotechnology is rapidly developing all over the world. Modern biotechnology offers unique opportunities, simultaneously as it gives rise to a number of ethical issues. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), PGD/HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigen) and germline gene therapy (GLGT) are controversial techniques. PGD gives a possibility to identify a genetic disease prior to the embryo’s implantation in the uterus. PGD/HLA involves selecting an embryo with genes coding for a specific tissue type, so that the child to be born can act as a donor to an existing sibling who requires a stem cell transplant. GLGT seeks to eliminate or change “bad” genes.</p><p>The purpose of this study is to investigate student’s ethical attitude concerning PGD, PGD/HLA and GLGT.</p><p>The empirical study was based on focus group discussions. Four group interviews were made, with 15 participants in all. The students are taking courses in biology or religion.</p><p>The result from the interviews shows that the ethical issues are difficult to have a definite opinion in, because there are possibilities and risks involved in all these techniques, according to the students. A central part of the discussion was devoted to human dignity and the moral status of the embryo. They also see risks such as bioterrorism, designing the perfect humans, economic interests, medical risks, among many other risks.</p> / <p>Forskningen på det bioteknologiska området utvecklas snabbt över hela världen. Den moderna bioteknologin erbjuder unika möjligheter, samtidigt som den ger upphov till en rad frågor av etiskt slag. Preimplantatorisk genetisk diagnostik (PGD), PGD/HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigen) och zygotisk genterapi är kontroversiella tekniker. PGD ger en möjlighet att identifiera genetiska sjukdomar före embryots implantering i livmodern. Med hjälp av PGD/HLA väljs ett embryo ut vars gener kodar för en specifik vävnadstyp, vilket gör att barnet som föds kan fungera som donator till ett existerande syskon som är i behov av en stamcells transplantation. Med zygotisk genterapi kan man ta bort eller byta ut ”dåliga” gener.</p><p>Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka studenters etiska värderingar rörande PGD, PGD/HLA och zygotisk genterapi.</p><p>Den empiriska studien baserades på fokusgrupp diskussioner. Fyra gruppintervjuer gjordes, med sammanlagt 15 deltagare. Studenterna studerar på programutbildningar i biologi eller religion.</p><p>Resultatet från intervjuerna visar att de etiska frågeställningarna är svåra att ha en klar uppfattning om, eftersom det finns möjligheter och risker med alla dessa tekniker, enligt studenterna. En central del av diskussionen ägnades åt människovärdet och embryots moraliska status. De ser också risker som bioterrorism, designa perfekta människor, ekonomiska intressen, medicinska risker, bland många andra risker.</p>

Mixade vårdsalar, det vill säga där man blandar män och kvinnor, är något som förkommer på sjukhusen runt om i landet och bör uppmärksammas utifrån patientens perspektiv då denne är i beroendeställning av sjukvården och dess vårdmiljö. Det blir allt vanligare att sjukhusen idag har mixade vårdsalar, detta oftast på grund av tids- och platsbrist. Studiens syfte var att beskriva patienters upplevelser av att vårdas på mixad vårdsal på en akut sjukvårdsavdelning inom nedre kirurgi. Studien var kvalitativ med fenomenologisk ansats. En intervjustudie med femton patienter som hade vårdats på mixad vårdsal genomfördes och i resultatet framkom att majoriteten av patienterna upplevde det positivt att vårdas på mixad vårdsal. Patienterna upplevde en bättre stämning, mjukare jargong och en lugnare atmosfär. Det visade sig också att några inte hade reflekterat över den mixade vårdsalen. De menade att det var någonting helt normalt och att alla strävade mot samma mål, att bli friska. Dock var det några få som kände sig chockade av upplevelsen och upplevde det som integritetskränkande. Sammanfattningsvis påvisade studiens resultat att mixade vårdsalar sågs som en positiv upplevelse och något som flera patienter kunde tänka sig i fortsättningen. / Mixed sex-wards, where you mix men and women, occur in hospitals around Sweden and should be recognized by the patient´s perspective when they are in a position of the medical and healthcare environment. Today it is becoming increasingly common for hospitals to have mixed sex-wards, this is usually because the lack of time and space. The study's purpose was to describe patients' experiences of care in a mixed sex-ward on an acute medical department of the lower surgery. The study was qualitative with a phenomenological approach. An interview study with fifthteen patients who had been cared for in a mixed sex-ward was conducted. The result showed that most patients felt positive when cared for in mixed sex ward. It turned out that they experienced a better atmosphere, softer jargon and a calmer ambience. It also emerged that some had not reflected on the mixed sex ward. They argued that there was something quite normal and that all patients towards the same goal, to get well. However, it was a few who felt traumatized by the experience and felt a violation of integrity. In conclusion, the study´s results showed that the mixed sex-wards were seen as a positive experience and something that many patients would consider in the future.

The international human rights instruments recognise the inherent dignity and inalienable rights of all members of the human family and that these rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person. The thesis explores the use of the phrase “inherent dignity” in the context of the catalogue of rights said to be derived from it. (For complete abstract open document)