Submitted by Ivan dos Anjos Todorov (ivanat86@gmail.com) on 2015-09-21T03:50:44Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ivan Todorov FGV.pdf: 812676 bytes, checksum: 48d0afdd2c60b9af09c95b31e3a3eb3d (MD5) / Rejected by Renata de Souza Nascimento (renata.souza@fgv.br), reason: Ivan, boa noite Por gentileza, retire a informação que consta abaixo da ficha catalográfica referente a elaboração da mesma. Em seguida, realize uma nova submissão. Att on 2015-09-21T23:05:01Z (GMT) / Submitted by Ivan dos Anjos Todorov (ivanat86@gmail.com) on 2015-09-22T01:42:39Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ivan Todorov FGV.pdf: 723882 bytes, checksum: 7a1ce7b1e2b81e9f9260a750b1f673c2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Renata de Souza Nascimento (renata.souza@fgv.br) on 2015-09-22T10:31:43Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ivan Todorov FGV.pdf: 723882 bytes, checksum: 7a1ce7b1e2b81e9f9260a750b1f673c2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-09-22T13:39:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ivan Todorov FGV.pdf: 723882 bytes, checksum: 7a1ce7b1e2b81e9f9260a750b1f673c2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-25 / The current international economic crisis showed that fighting output hiatus using only monetary tools might not be enough. In this context, questions about the efficiency of counter cyclical temporary fiscal stimulus where asked, and additionally which of those fiscal stimulus would bring more benefits to those economies. This work developed a structural DSGE model with characteristics and calibrations for the brazilian economy. The main goal was to perform an exercise with expansionary fiscal shocks, and to analyze their fiscal multipliers. The results suggest that the impact of government current spending would create larger fiscal multipliers, both in the short and in the long run, however it had decreasing accumulative effects. On the other hand, the consumption tax rate shock created small fiscal multipliers in the short run, however it had increasing effect on the long run, achieving long run multipliers similar to government current spending ones. / A atual crise econômica internacional mostrou que o combate a hiatos do produto utilizando apenas a política monetária pode não ser suficiente. Neste contexto, questões sobre a eficácia de estímulos fiscais temporários como política anticíclica foram levantadas, e adicionalmente quais estímulos fiscais seriam mais benéficos às economias. Este trabalho desenvolveu um modelo estrutural DSGE com características e calibrações para a economia brasileira. O objetivo era realizar um exercício com choques fiscais expansionistas, de modo a analisar seus multiplicadores fiscais. Os resultados sugerem que o impacto de gastos correntes do governo obteve melhor multiplicador fiscal, tanto no curto quanto no longo prazo, porém teve efeitos acumulativos decrescentes. Por outro lado, o choque de diminuição da alíquota dos impostos sobre consumo obteve baixos multiplicadores fiscais a curto prazo, porém com efeitos crescentes a longo prazo, alcançando multiplicadores de longo prazo similares aos dos gastos do governo.

A literatura sobre economia monetária vem despertando interesse crescente dentro da macroeconomia. Devido aos avanços computacionais, os modelos têm se tornado cada vez mais complexos e precisos, permitindo estudar detalhadamente as relações entre as variáveis reais da economia e as variáveis nominais. Dessa forma, através de um modelo de equilíbriogeral estocástico e dinâmico (DSGE) baseado em Gali e Monacelli (2005), é proposto e estimado um modelo para a economia brasileira através de métodos bayesianos, com o intuito de avaliar se o Banco Central do Brasil (BCB) considera variações cambiais na condução da política monetária. O resultado mais importante do presente trabalho é que não há evidências de que o BCB altere diretamente a trajetória dos juros devido a variações na taxa de câmbio. Um exercício de simulação também é realizado. Conclui-se que a economia acomoda rapidamente choques induzidos separadamente na taxa de câmbio, nos termos de troca, na taxa de juros e na inflação mundial. / The literature on monetary economy has aroused growing interest in macroeconomics. Due to computational advancements, models have been increasingly more complex and accurate, allowing for the in-depth analysis of the relationships between real economic variables and nominal variables. Therefore, using a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model, based on Gali and Monacelli (2005), we propose and estimate a model for the Brazilian economy by employing Bayesian methods so as to assess whether the Central Bank of Brazil takes exchange rate fluctuations into account in the conduct of monetary policy. The most striking result of the present study is that the Central Bank of Brazil does not directly change the interest rate path due to exchange rate movements. A simulation exercise is also used. Our conclusion is that the economy quickly accommodates shocks induced separately on the exchange rate, on the terms of trade, on the interest rate, and on global inflation.

Conforme enfatizado por Dib (2003), recentemente tem sido observado um crescente interesse no desenvolvimento de modelos econômicos que destacam o papel da rigidez no preço nominal, pautados no comportamento otimizador de agentes racionais em um ambiente dinâmico, estocástico e de equilíbrio geral (DSGE). Entretanto, apesar das vantagens apresentadas por esta classe de modelos, observa-se que os choques de política monetária geram apenas fraca persistência nas variáveis reais e nominais, o que vai de encontro com a maior parte das evidências, que indicam que os efeitos destes choques duram vários trimestres. Desta forma, no presente trabalho foi feita, através de métodos bayesianos, a estimação para o Brasil do modelo DSGE desenvolvido por Dib (2003), que combina rigidez nominal na forma de custos de ajustamento de preços e rigidez real na forma de custos de ajustamento de capital e/ou emprego. O objetivo foi verificar se a inserção de rigidez real aumenta a rigidez nominal e, consequentemente, a persistência de choques de política monetária. Os resultados de estimação mostraram que a inserção de rigidez real contribuiu para o aumento da rigidez nominal, em especial quando aquela foi inserida na forma de custos de ajustamento de emprego. Ainda, exercícios de simulação mostraram que quando o modelo contém rigidez real, os choques de oferta de moeda, de demanda de moeda e de tecnologia têm impactos mais persistentes sobre algumas variáveis macroeconômicas. / According to the emphasis by Dib (2003), recently there has been a growing interest in the development of economic models that outline the role of rigidities in nominal price, based on the optimizing behavior of rational agents in a dynamic, stochastic, general-equilibrium (DSGE) environment. Although, there are advantages shown by these models, it was observed that the money supply shocks create only weak persistence of real and nominal variables, which conflicts with the majority of evidences, pointing that the effects of this shocks lasting for many quarters. Therefore, in this present work it was carried out, through Bayesian methods, the estimation of Dib’s (2003) model for the Brazilian economy, which combines the nominal rigidities in the form of costly price adjustment and real rigidities in the form of cost of adjusting capital and/or employment. The objective was to verify if the insertion of the real rigidities increases the nominal rigidities and, consequently, the persistence of monetary policy shocks. The results of this estimation showed that the insertion of real rigidities contributed to the increase of nominal rigidities, especially when the former is inserted in the form of employment adjusting costs. In addition, exercises of simulation demonstrated that when the real rigidities are present in the model, the money supply, the money demands and the technology shocks have impacts more persistent over some macroeconomic variables.

Conforme enfatizado por Dib (2003), recentemente tem sido observado um crescente interesse no desenvolvimento de modelos econômicos que destacam o papel da rigidez no preço nominal, pautados no comportamento otimizador de agentes racionais em um ambiente dinâmico, estocástico e de equilíbrio geral (DSGE). Entretanto, apesar das vantagens apresentadas por esta classe de modelos, observa-se que os choques de política monetária geram apenas fraca persistência nas variáveis reais e nominais, o que vai de encontro com a maior parte das evidências, que indicam que os efeitos destes choques duram vários trimestres. Desta forma, no presente trabalho foi feita, através de métodos bayesianos, a estimação para o Brasil do modelo DSGE desenvolvido por Dib (2003), que combina rigidez nominal na forma de custos de ajustamento de preços e rigidez real na forma de custos de ajustamento de capital e/ou emprego. O objetivo foi verificar se a inserção de rigidez real aumenta a rigidez nominal e, consequentemente, a persistência de choques de política monetária. Os resultados de estimação mostraram que a inserção de rigidez real contribuiu para o aumento da rigidez nominal, em especial quando aquela foi inserida na forma de custos de ajustamento de emprego. Ainda, exercícios de simulação mostraram que quando o modelo contém rigidez real, os choques de oferta de moeda, de demanda de moeda e de tecnologia têm impactos mais persistentes sobre algumas variáveis macroeconômicas. / According to the emphasis by Dib (2003), recently there has been a growing interest in the development of economic models that outline the role of rigidities in nominal price, based on the optimizing behavior of rational agents in a dynamic, stochastic, general-equilibrium (DSGE) environment. Although, there are advantages shown by these models, it was observed that the money supply shocks create only weak persistence of real and nominal variables, which conflicts with the majority of evidences, pointing that the effects of this shocks lasting for many quarters. Therefore, in this present work it was carried out, through Bayesian methods, the estimation of Dib’s (2003) model for the Brazilian economy, which combines the nominal rigidities in the form of costly price adjustment and real rigidities in the form of cost of adjusting capital and/or employment. The objective was to verify if the insertion of the real rigidities increases the nominal rigidities and, consequently, the persistence of monetary policy shocks. The results of this estimation showed that the insertion of real rigidities contributed to the increase of nominal rigidities, especially when the former is inserted in the form of employment adjusting costs. In addition, exercises of simulation demonstrated that when the real rigidities are present in the model, the money supply, the money demands and the technology shocks have impacts more persistent over some macroeconomic variables.

This Thesis is composed by three independent papers that investigate<p>central debates in empirical macroeconomic modeling.<p><p>Chapter 1, entitled “A Model for Real-Time Data Assessment with an Application to GDP Growth Rates”, provides a model for the data<p>revisions of macroeconomic variables that distinguishes between rational expectation updates and noise corrections. Thus, the model encompasses the two polar views regarding the publication process of statistical agencies: noise versus news. Most of the studies previous studies that analyze data revisions are based<p>on the classical noise and news regression approach introduced by Mankiew, Runkle and Shapiro (1984). The problem is that the statistical tests available do not formulate both extreme hypotheses as collectively exhaustive, as recognized by Aruoba (2008). That is, it would be possible to reject or accept both of them simultaneously. In turn, the model for the<p>DPP presented here allows for the simultaneous presence of both noise and news. While the “regression approach” followed by Faust et al. (2005), along the lines of Mankiew et al. (1984), identifies noise in the preliminary<p>figures, it is not possible for them to quantify it, as done by our model. <p><p>The second and third chapters acknowledge the possibility that macroeconomic data is measured with errors, but the approach followed to model the missmeasurement is extremely stylized and does not capture the complexity of the revision process that we describe in the first chapter.<p><p><p>Chapter 2, entitled “Revisiting the Success of the RBC model”, proposes the use of dynamic factor models as an alternative to the VAR based tools for the empirical validation of dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) theories. Along the lines of Giannone et al. (2006), we use the state-space parameterisation of the factor models proposed by Forni et al. (2007) as a competitive benchmark that is able to capture weak statistical restrictions that DSGE models impose on the data. Our empirical illustration compares the out-of-sample forecasting performance of a simple RBC model augmented with a serially correlated noise component against several specifications belonging to classes of dynamic factor and VAR models. Although the performance of the RBC model is comparable<p>to that of the reduced form models, a formal test of predictive accuracy reveals that the weak restrictions are more useful at forecasting than the strong behavioral assumptions imposed by the microfoundations in the model economy.<p><p>The last chapter, “What are Shocks Capturing in DSGE modeling”, contributes to current debates on the use and interpretation of larger DSGE<p>models. Recent tendency in academic work and at central banks is to develop and estimate large DSGE models for policy analysis and forecasting. These models typically have many shocks (e.g. Smets and Wouters, 2003 and Adolfson, Laseen, Linde and Villani, 2005). On the other hand, empirical studies point out that few large shocks are sufficient to capture the covariance structure of macro data (Giannone, Reichlin and<p>Sala, 2005, Uhlig, 2004). In this Chapter, we propose to reconcile both views by considering an alternative DSGE estimation approach which<p>models explicitly the statistical agency along the lines of Sargent (1989). This enables us to distinguish whether the exogenous shocks in DSGE<p>modeling are structural or instead serve the purpose of fitting the data in presence of misspecification and measurement problems. When applied to the original Smets and Wouters (2007) model, we find that the explanatory power of the structural shocks decreases at high frequencies. This allows us to back out a smoother measure of the natural output gap than that<p>resulting from the original specification. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Diese Dissertation untersucht, wie sich die Ausgestaltung eines Steuersystems – bzw. dessen Änderungen – auf die Dynamik von makroökonomischen Variablen auswirken kann. Die Analyse wird mit Hilfe von allgemeinen Gleichgewichtsmodellen durchgeführt, die Keynesianische Eigenschaften haben und durch die Berücksichtigung von stochastischen Elementen dynamisch sind. Die Arbeit umfasst drei Essays, deren Hauptfokus auf der Eurozone liegt und die politikrelevanten Fragestellungen gewidmet sind. Die Arbeit deckt klassische Themen wie fiskalische Multiplikatoren und „Liability-Side Equivalence“ ab, aber sie beschäftigt sich auch mit dem aktuellen Thema der fiskalischen Abwertung. Das erste Essay untersucht die Auswirkungen von Änderungen in der Mehrwertsteuer auf die gesamt– wirtschaftliche Leistung einer Volkswirtschaft. Die Neuerung gegenüber bisherigen modellbasierten Publikationen über diese Fragestellung besteht in einer realistischen Modellierung des „tax pass-through“, also der Weitergabe von Steueränderung an Konsumenten durch Preisanpassungen. Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass eine empirisch plausible pass-through-Dynamik die kurzfristigen Mehrwertsteuer Multiplikatoren drastisch reduziert gegenüber denen in herkömmlichen Modellen. Die gewonnene Einsicht, dass Standard-Modelle der institutionellen und akademischen Forschung die kurzfristigen Multiplikatoren dramatisch überschätzen, kann potentiell zu einer Verbesserung von modellbasierten Politikempfehlungen beitragen. Das zweite Essay befasst sich mit fiskalischen Abwertungen. Diese Politik zielt auf eine Abwertung des realen Wechselkurses – und damit auf eine Verbesserung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit – ab, ohne dabei die Anpassung eines nominalen Wechselkurses zu erfordern. Sie sieht eine Senkung der Sozialabgaben vor, die durch eine Erhöhung der Mehrwertsteuer finanziert wird. Ein höherer Mehrwertsteuersatz macht importierte Güter teuer, während geminderte Sozialabgaben (und damit geminderte marginale Produktionskosten und Preise) inländische Güter im Ausland billiger machen. In dem Papier betrachten wir eine gemeinsame fiskalische Abwertung aller Peripherieländer der Eurozone. Die Neuerung gegenüber anderen Studien besteht darin, dass Lohnrigiditäten berücksichtigt werden – welche sich für die Effektivität der Reform als zentral erweisen –, und dass wir zwischen zwei Sorten von Abwertungen unterscheiden: Eine, in der Sozialabgaben der Arbeitgeber gesenkt werden, und eine, in der Sozialabgaben der Arbeitnehmer verringert werden. In unserem Modell ist die erstgenannte Form der Abwertung deutlich effektiver. Das dritte Essay untersucht „Liability-Side Equivalence“ im Zusammenhang von Sozialabgaben. Dieses Prinzip besagt, dass die gesetzlich festgelegte Aufteilung der Abgaben zwischen Arbeitgebern und Arbeitnehmern langfristig keinerlei Konsequenzen für die reale Allokation hat. Ich zeige hingegen, dass die Aufteilung der Abgaben Auswirkungen auf makroökonomische Fluktuationen, auf die Effizienz der Allokation, und damit auf die langfristige Produktivität hat. Die einzige nicht in der Literatur übliche Annahme, die für dieses Ergebnis benötigt wird, ist, dass das Sozialsystem ein ausgeglichenes Budget hat. / This thesis analyzes how the configuration of a country’s tax system – or a change to that system – can affect dynamics of macroeconomic aggregates in New-Keynesian Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium models. It contains three essays, each having a primary focus on the Euro Area and each addressing a policy-relevant question. The thesis covers classic topics like fiscal multipliers and Liability-Side Equivalence as well as the more recent subject of Fiscal Devaluations. The first essay analyzes the impact of changes in the value-added tax (VAT) on output. The innovation relative to previous theoretical contributions on this subject is that my model accounts for empirically observed tax pass-through dynamics. I find that the introduction of empirically plausible VAT pass-through dramatically lowers short-run multipliers relative to those obtained if tax pass-through is not rigorously modeled. By showing that workhorse models used in academic and institutional research overestimate the short-run impact of VAT changes, the work might help to improve model-based guidance on the design of discretionary fiscal policy packages. The second essay addresses Fiscal Devaluations, a policy that is aimed at deteriorating the real exchange rate – and thereby improving a country’s competitiveness – absent an adjustable nominal exchange rate. It prescribes a reduction in social security contributions financed by an increase in the VAT. The higher VAT increases the price for imported goods, while the reduction in social security contributions (which lowers marginal production costs and with it producer prices) makes domestic goods cheaper in the importing countries. In the co-authored paper, we analyze the impact of a Fiscal Devaluation jointly undertaken by Europe’s periphery countries. The novelty is that our model features nominal wage rigidity – which is shown to be crucial for the policy’s effectiveness – and that we compare two types of Fiscal Devaluations, one that reduces firms' social security contributions and one that lowers workers' contributions. We find that the former type is considerably more effective than the latter type. The third essay investigates Liability-Side Equivalence in the context of social security contributions. This principle implies that the statutory split of contributions between firms and workers does not matter for the real allocation in the long run. I contradict this notion by showing that it matters for macroeconomic fluctuations, for the efficiency of the allocation, and thereby for long-run productivity in my model. The only non-standard assumption required to generate this result is that the social security system runs a balanced budget.

Diese Dissertation besteht aus drei Essays, die die Rolle von Haushalts-Heterogenität für makroökonomische Entwicklungen untersuchen. Alle Essays verwenden dynamische, stochastische Modelle des allgemeinen makroökonomischen Gleichgewichtes, in denen Haushalte heterogen sind. Das erste Essay berechnet Multiplikatoren von budgetneutralen fiskalischen Politiken, die Einkommen von Haushalten mit einer geringen Konsumneigung zu Haushalten mit einer hohen Konsumneigung umverteilen. Zu diesem Zweck unterteile ich den Haushaltssektor in einem Neu-Keynesianischen Modell in eine Vielzahl von Untergruppen mit unterschiedlichen Konsumneigungen, wodurch die empirisch beobachtete Verteilung von Konsumneigungen exakt im Modell repliziert werden kann. Ich zeige, dass budgetneutrale Umverteilungen in diesem Modell ein wirksames Instrument sind um die Wirtschaft zu stimulieren. Das zweite Essay analysiert die Auswirkungen von Haushalts-Heterogenität für die Transmission von adversen externen Schocks in einem Bewley-Modell einer kleinen offenen Volkswirtschaft. Ich zeige, dass die negativen Auswirkungen der Schocks auf Haushaltseinkommen für ärmere Haushalte stärker sind. Da diese eine höhere marginale Konsumneigung haben, bedeutet das eine Abnahme der aggregierten Nachfrage. Des Weiteren profitieren reichere Haushalte disproportional von einer Stabilisierung der Volkswirtschaft durch eine Wechselkursabwertung. Das dritte Essay untersucht die Auswirkungen eines Anstieges der Lebenserwartung. Dabei liegt der Fokus auf den Implikationen von altersabhängigem Lohnrisiko, das einen U-förmigen Verlauf über die Lebenszeit aufweist. Wenn dies in einem Aiyagari-Modell mit überlappenden Generationen berücksichtigt wird, spielt die Anpassung von Arbeitsangebot eine wichtigere Rolle als im Standard-Modell ohne altersabhängiges Lohnrisiko. Anpassungen im Sparverhalten werden hingegen weniger wichtig. / This thesis consists of three essays on the implications of household heterogeneity for macroeconomic dynamics. Each essay employs a different Heterogeneous-Agent Dynamic Stochastic General-Equilibrium (DSGE) model tailored to the given research question. The first essay computes multipliers of different types of budget-neutral redistributive fiscal policies in a New Keynesian DSGE model. An ad-hoc distribution of MPC is introduced by partitioning the household population into a large number of segments with a varying share of hand-to-mouth consumers, which allows matching empirical estimates of the MPC distribution. I find that targeted transfers can be an effective tool in stimulating aggregate demand. In the second essay, I analyze the role of household heterogeneity for the propagation of external shocks in a Bewley-type model of a small open economy. I find that negative external shocks reduce households' current income, whereby poor households are affected most strongly. Since poor households have the highest MPC, this brings about a reduction in aggregate demand. My results further show that rich households dis-proportionally benefit from the stabilization of the domestic economy, provided by a devaluation of the nominal exchange rate. The third essay analyzes the effect of an increase in life expectancy in an Aiyagari overlapping generations model. Motivated by empirical evidence, the process for idiosyncratic wage shocks is modified such that their volatility is u-shaped over the life cycle. Relative to the standard model with age-independent wage volatility, labor supply has a more significant role in preparing for an increase in the expected retirement spell, while precautionary savings become less relevant. In the aggregate, this translates into a smaller fall in the natural interest rate, relative to the standard model.

In this thesis we analyse a problem of the real economic adjustment between two countries, one of which is an emerging market and the other is a developed economy. When they form a monetary union the only possible adjustment to asymmetric shocks transmitted internationally is through the real variables. We take into account existing asymmetries in the foreign direct investment (FDI) intensity and FDI relations. The issues of FDI and differences in the FDI intensity are real aspects of functioning of economies and relations between them. They reveal some problem from the macroeconomic perspective. However, the problem relates also to microeconomic foundations. The given trade and FDI relations between countries depend on decisions of firms that are heterogeneous. To study the effect of plant delocalization and FDI on output fluctuations between two countries we use a framework that accounts for all this issues, that means dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models with heterogeneity in firm productivity. We add a new dimension to the existing literature on DSGE models with heterogeneous firms. First, we complete goods market with a new segment of production, namely products offered by multinationals which produce abroad and export back to their economy of origin. Second, we account for asymmetries in the FDI intensity and differences in production structures that occur between two economies forming a monetary union. Summing things up, the analysis allows us to state that the real aspects of economy functioning, such as trade connections between countries and differences in production structures, determine economic performance and behaviour of economies in terms of output fluctuations.

The New Macroeconometrics may succinctly be described as the application of Bayesian analysis to the class of macroeconomic models called Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium (DSGE) models. A prominent local example from this research area is the development and estimation of the RAMSES model, the main macroeconomic model in use at Sveriges Riksbank.   Bayesian estimation of DSGE models is often computationally demanding. In this thesis fast algorithms for Bayesian inference are developed and tested in the context of the state space model framework implied by DSGE models. The algorithms discussed in the thesis deal with evaluation of the DSGE model likelihood function and sampling from the posterior distribution. Block Kalman filter algorithms are suggested for likelihood evaluation in large linearised DSGE models. Parallel particle filter algorithms are presented for likelihood evaluation in nonlinearly approximated DSGE models. Prefetching random walk Metropolis algorithms and adaptive hybrid sampling algorithms are suggested for posterior sampling. The generality of the algorithms, however, suggest that they should be of interest also outside the realm of macroeconometrics.

This thesis is divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, I identify and explore the fundamental relationship between income inequality and GDP volatility. I give theoretical insight of this relationship alongside empirical evidence from a sample of industrialized countries. In the second chapter, in regression estimates relating inequality to the variables of interest, I suggest that rather than aggregate inequality, the average growth rate of within-cohort inequality data should be used. In the light of my findings I then try to explore the effect of international trade on inequality in the US and UK. In the last chapter, I carry out a Monte Carlo study. This compares efficiencies of impulse response matching and GMM estimators at identifying reduced form coefficients and structural parameters on a DSGE model. / Esta tesis está dividida por tres capítulos. En el primer capítulo, llevo al interés que hay una relación fundamental entre la desigualdad de ingresos y la volatilidad de PBI. Doy pruebas teóricas para esta relación, así como empíricas de una muestra de países industrializados. En el segundo capítulo, sugiero que mejor que la desigualdad agregada, la tasa de crecimiento media de dentro de desigualdades de cohorte debería estar usada en las estimaciones de regresión que relaciona la desigualdad con las variables del interés. Entonces trato de explorar el efecto del comercio internacional en la desigualdad en los EE.UU y en el Reino Unido a la luz de mis conclusiones. En el último capítulo, realizo un estudio de Monte Carlo para comparar la eficiencia de la Correspondencia de respuesta de Impulso y peritos GMM en la identificación de los coeficientes de forma reducidos y parámetros estructurales en un modelo de DSGE.