The aim of this thesis is to provide a deeper understanding of the construction of identity in relation to European integration and to discover how identities are constructed in relation to each other. The paper will therefore answer the question: ‘How can we understand the identity constructions in Wales during the political changes of Brexit, and what do these constructions reveal about the effects of European integration’. The EU advocates being ‘united in diversity’. This statement provides direction for this research, as it allows for a discussion of how various identities relate to each other. The paper will look into the political discourse of the Welsh government by applying Critical Discourse Analysis. By examining the speeches of Assembly Members, an analysis can be given of the construction of identity in the political debate in Wales. Consequently, it will look at the effects of European integration on identity construction. The analysed discourse illustrates the importance of national identity in the debate and the rather weak constructions of European identity. It also depicts that even though European integration is an important topic in the political discourse, its influence on identity construction is not strongly established. There are multiple actors that exert influence in Wales. Though, the most important is the interaction between Wales and England. The dividing factor in regards of identity construction is thus not in relation to the EU, but in relation to governance in the UK. The framework of multi-level governance in the UK is therefore an important factor in the construction of identity. The analysis indicates that even though European integration is fundamental for the development of regions such as Wales, national heritage and culture are still the most predominant in the construction of identity.

More and more attention is paid in the academic debate to the issue of sub-state entities, represented by regional governments, as partially independent actors of international politics. This phenomenon, referred to as paradiplomacy, is particularly visible in the European Union, where since 1980s regional governments have been mobilising to gain direct influence on the shape of European politics. A regional government that acts as an agent of European politics may or may not be actively supported by its central government. This thesis tries to investigate the relationship between the direct representations of the Visegrád Group regions in Brussels and their respective national Permanent Representations. In the first chapter, I discuss the theoretical issues related to regional mobilisation in Brussels by referring to the work of researchers who deal with multi- level governance in the context of the European Union. In the second chapter, I present and justify the choice of research design, case studies, and semi-structured interviews as the main source of obtaining data necessary to answer the research question. In the third chapter, I included the analysis of the obtained information, and in the fourth chapter, the conclusions drawn from it. This research shows that direct regional...

We present a multi-grid method for a class of structured generalized Lyapunov matrix equations. Such equations need to be solved in each step of the Newton method for algebraic Riccati equations, which arise from linear-quadratic optimal control problems governed by partial differential equations. We prove the rate of convergence of the two-grid method to be bounded independent of the dimension of the problem under certain assumptions. The multi-grid method is based on matrix-matrix multiplications and thus it offers a great potential for a parallelization. The efficiency of the method is demonstrated by numerical experiments.

In this paper, finite element discretizations of the degenerated operator -ω²(y) u_xx-ω²(x)u_yy=g in the unit square are investigated, where the weight function satisfies ω(ξ)=ξ^α with α ≥ 0. We propose two multi-level methods in order to solve the resulting system of linear algebraic equations. The first method is a multi-grid algorithm with line-smoother. A proof of the smoothing property is given. The second method is a BPX-like preconditioner which we call MTS-BPX preconditioner. We show that the upper eigenvalue bound of the MTS-BPX preconditioned system matrix grows proportionally to the level number.

The introduction of the European Union (EU) macro-regional strategies (MRS) in the latter half of the 2000s was a significant step in the process of transformation of EU governance system. EU MRSs act as a new form of comprehensive governance framework for multi-objective and cross-sectoral cooperation in geographically defined macro-regions. This thesis examines the case of the Baltic Sea Region in order to evaluate a potential of this new governance instrument to transform cooperation arrangements in the region. In order to shed light on the strategy’s patterns and dynamics, the present study utilizes a qualitative methodological approach that uses document analysis based on a comprehensive analytical framework. The analytical framework incorporates the theoretical perspectives of multi-level and experimentalist governance, as well as the theory of differentiated integration. The main findings of this study suggest that the inception of the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUSBSR) in 2009 has offered an innovative and dynamic framework for cooperation that enabled a wider representation and more active participation of local and regional actors. This allowed for a more coherent and coordinated policymaking, facilitated a more responsive and transparent cooperation system in the region, as well as fostered transnational cooperation in the Baltic Sea Region by ensuring a wider engagement of non-EU countries.

Nous abordons dans cette thèse un problème important en simulation multi-agent pour l'étude des systèmes complexes: celui d'assembler de multiples expertises par une approche multi-niveau. Alors que les approches existantes considèrent habituellement la vue d'un seul expert principal sur le système, nous proposons d'utiliser une approche multi-niveau pour intégrer plusieurs expertises sous la forme d'agents de différents niveaux d'abstraction. Nous montrons qu'il est ainsi possible de rester proche des concepts manipulés par les différents experts (ce qui permet de faciliter le processus de validation dans leurs domaines respectifs) et de combiner les différents niveaux de ces concepts, de manière à ce que chaque expert puisse comprendre les dynamiques des éléments liés à son domaine. Nous proposons le méta-modèle SIMLAB basé sur une représentation unifiée des concepts par des agents pouvant s'influencer les uns les autres dans différents axes et différents niveaux. Ce travail est concrétisé dans le cadre de l'étude de l'activité humaine en relation avec la consommation électrique. Il s'agit là d'un exemple typique de système complexe nécessitant de multiples expertises issues de différents domaines tels que l'ergonomie, l'énergétique, la sociologie, la thermique, ... Dans ce contexte, nous présentons ensuite la mise en oeuvre de notre approche dans la plate-forme SMACH de simulation des comportements humains et nous décrivons un ensemble d'expérimentations illustrant les différentes caractéristiques de notre approche. Nous montrons enfin la capacité de SIMLAB à reproduire et à étendre en simulation une étude réalisée sur le terrain de gestion de la demande énergétique. / The purpose of this work is to tackle a key problem in the study of complex systems when using multi-agent simulation: how to assemble several domains of expertise with a multi-level approach. While existing approaches usually consider the viewpoint of a unique main expert, we propose to use a multi-level model to integrate the multiple domains of expertise embodied in agents located at different abstraction levels. In this work, we show that it is possible to both stay close to the concepts manipulated by the experts (for the sake of the validation process in the domain of each expert) and combine the levels of those concepts. That way, each expert can easily understand the dynamics of the components related to their domain.We present SIMLAB, our meta-model based on a unified representation of the concepts using agents. Each agent can influence the others on different axes and levels. This work is materialised in a study of human activity in relation to electrical consumption. It is a typical example of complex system which requires many domains of expertise such as psychology, energetics, sociology, heat science, … In this context, we present the implementation of our approach in SMACH, a simulation platform of human behaviours. We Then describe several experiments to illustrate the characteristics of our approach. Finally, we show how SIMLAB can reproduce and extend in silico a field study of energy demand management.

Major cyber attacks against the cyber networks of organizations has become a common phenomenon nowadays. Cyber attacks are carried out both through the spread of malware and also through multi-stage attacks known as hacking. A cyber network can be represented directly as a simple directed or undirected network (graph) of nodes and arcs. It can also be represented by a transformed network such as the attack graph which uses information about network topology, attacker profile, and existing vulnerabilities to represent all the potential attack paths from readily accesible vulnerabilities to valuable target nodes. Then, interdicting or hardening a subset of arcs in the network naturally maps into deploying security countermeasures on the associated devices or connections. In this dissertation, we develop network interdiction models and algorithms to optimally select a subset of arcs which upon interdiction minimizes the spread of infection or minimizes the loss from multi-stage attacks. In particular, we define four novel network connectivity-based metrics and develop interdiction models to optimize the metrics. Direct network representation of the physical cyber network is used as the underlying network in this case. Two of the interdiction models prove to be very effective arc removal methods for minimizing the spread of infection. We also develop multi-level network interdiction models that remove a subset of arcs to minimize the loss from multi-stage attacks. Our models capture the defenderattacker interaction in terms of stackelberg zero-sum games considering the attacker both as a complete rational and bounded rational agents. Our novel solution algorithms based on constraint and column generation and enhanced by heuristic methods efficiently solve the difficult multi-level mixed-integer programs with integer variables in all levels in reasonable times.

This study focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic work rewards among women and men in 12 post-industrial nations in the Global North. Guiding my analyses was Esping-Andersen’s theoretical framework and the following three main research questions: (1) how individual attributes and national policies influence the salience individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; (2) how individual attributes and national policies differ from each other in relative magnitude as predictors of the value individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; and (3) how individual attributes and national policies impact the importance individuals assign to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards differs by gender. For the micro level analysis, I used data from the 2005 International Social Survey Program Work Orientation Module. The twelve countries included in the analysis are Australia, Denmark, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States. Macro level policy data are drawn from the 2005 Social Expenditure Database and maternity leave data are from the 2005 International Network on Leave Policy and Research. Analysis was performed using Stata regression with the cluster command. While not all variables included in the model were statistically significant, the general hypotheses were supported with the following results: (1) micro level variables (education, income, and employment) and macro level variables (paid family leave and the percentage of GDP spent on childcare and pre-primary education) increased the importance individual’s assign to intrinsic rewards; (2) the lack of human capital increases an individual’s emphasis on extrinsic rewards; (3) while macro level variables have a far greater impact on the importance individuals assign to intrinsic work rewards, both micro and macro level factors are important for explaining the maximum possible variation in the importance individuals assign to intrinsic work rewards; and (4) gender does not change the value an individual assigns to intrinsic or extrinsic rewards. This study represents a new, more comprehensive approach to studying the relationships among micro-level factors, structural opportunities and constraints, intrinsic and extrinsic work rewards, and gender. A review of the literature shows no other studies of this scope.

Humanity is facing massive sustainability challenges, such as climate change and the associated loss of biodiversity, water scarcity and food insecurity. Capitalist urbanisation drives furthermore profound transformations in rural and urban areas and thus in the agriculture and food systems, presenting both challenges and opportunities. Urban agriculture as a part of a local food system, where food is produced in an urban area and sold to consumers in that area, presents a new food production model, generating innovative tools to lower agricultural land use, improving resource use efficiency and biodiversity. Consequently, great potential can be attributed to a sustainable transformation of the agri-food system through urban agriculture.  Like many cities around the world, Malmö has recognised the need for sustainable development. Therefore, the city of Malmö has been addressing environmental, social and economic challenges for several years and is committed to a holistic and sustainable urban development. Although the city is aware of the benefits of small-scale urban agriculture, there are no policies that enable the upscaling of urban agriculture in the city. Botildenborg, a sustainable urban farm and meeting place in Malmö, on the other hand, has recognised the potential for sustainable business and development through urban agriculture for several years, by setting itself the goal to increase the local and ecologically produced food within the city through this form of agriculture. Botildenborg serves therefore as a case study of this research.  In order to be able to provide indications for policies to shape the transformation steps towards sustainability within the agri-food system in Malmö, structures and patterns, as well as possible drivers and potential obstacles of a sustainable transition, are examined in the course of this research. The empirical results from qualitative and quantitative data are systematically processed using the multi-level perspective in combination with the urban political ecology.  The results indicate that the identified barriers tend to be structural and are predominantly located in the economic and especially the political sphere. It seems that the non-monetary added value from urban agriculture is not perceived to its full potential by the city of Malmö. Botildenborg is stabilising itself mainly through knowledge sharing and network building, and thus will sooner or later be able, through the movement behind the network, to change the dominant agri-food regime. The rapidity of the transformation depends on the political ii willingness of the city of Malmö to explicitly integrate urban agriculture into its policies and regulations.

In the context of increasing car ownership in Stockholm, this thesis explores the emergenceof e-scooters in the city and what role they could play in achieving a transition away from carusage.This is explored using theories of sustainable transitions: the multi-level perspective,transition management and strategic niche management. These theories are used to guide theempirical enquiry of this research project and to suggest areas of further research and possiblepolicy recommendations. Empirical Findings This study used a mixed-method strategy consisting of interviews with key stakeholders andan e-scooter user survey (n=408). The interviewees from Stockholm Region and two e-scooter operators were broadly inagreement that e-scooters could have a positive impact going forward, whilst acknowledgingchallenges. The interviews highlighted a good level of both private-private and public-privatecooperation in the industry and signalled that this cooperation is key if e-scooters are to be asustainable aspect of Stockholm’s transportation system. The survey indicated that e-scooters are a poor substitute for private (self-owned) car use i.e.only 4% of recorded journeys shifted away from self-owned car use. However, e-scooterswere found to be a much stronger substitute for taxi/ride-hail journeys with 10% of e-scooterjourneys shifting away from them. Survey findings were used to compare the GlobalWarming Potential (GWP) of e-scooters with the modes people used otherwise. It found thatthe modes people would have used had a GWP of 64g per km travelled, which compared to131g (Moreau et al, 2020) and 125g (Hollingsworth et al, 2019) for e-scooters reported in theliterature and 35g reported in a study conducted on behalf of Voi - an e-scooter company(EY, 2020). For a discussion on these figures please refer to sections 2.2.1 and 6.2.3. The timing of the survey gave a unique opportunity to explore the impact of Covid-19 on escooter journeys. A statistically significant difference between the modal shift of journeystaken before and after the Covid-19 outbreak (P-value= 0.027) was found, with journeystaken during the Covid-19 pandemic more than twice as likely to have shifted away from anytype of car use than journeys taken before the outbreak. The discussion was framed using theories of sustainable transitions. It argued that e-scooterswill not achieve a transition away from mobility on their own. However, if there is a moregeneral switch from ownership to usership in the Stockholm transport sector, e-scooters (andother micro-mobility) could substitute an increased number of taxi/ride-hail journeys whichwould see them contribute to a more environmentally sustainable transportation system. Thefinal part of this thesis discusses policy options that would help e-scooters find a space withinStockholm’s transportation systems where they can best achieve environmental sustainabilitygoals including the importance of using a multi-actor approach, a flexible cap on the numberof e-scooters, environmental merit-based tender processes, e-scooter parking charges andminimum prices. / Denna mastersuppsats handlar om framväxten av elsparkcyklar i i Stockholm, och utforskarvilken roll detta nya färdmedel kan spela för att minska bilanvändning i en situation med ökatbilägande. Detta utforskas med hjälp av teorier om hållbarhetsomställning: "multi-level" perspektiv,transition management och strategisk nisch-management. Dessa teorier används för attvägleda den empiriska undersökningen och föreslå områden för ytterligare forskning ochpolicyrekommendationer. Empiriska resultat Studien har utförts med hjälp av en ”mixed method”-ansats, och grundas bl a i intervjuermed viktiga intressenter och en undersökning med elsparkcykelanvändare (n=408). De intervjuade intressenterna från Stockholmsregionen och två elsparkcykelföretag var i stortsett överens om att elsparkcyklar kan ha en positiv inverkan på hållbart resande, samtidigtsom det finns utmaningar. Intervjuerna belyste en god nivå av både privat-privat ochoffentlig-privat samarbete i branschen och signalerade att detta samarbete är avgörande omelsparkcyklar ska kunna bidra till en hållbar utveckling av Stockholms transportsystem.Undersökningen visade att elsparkcyklar inte ersätter privat (egenägd) bilanvändning i någotstörre avseende: endast 4% av de idenitfierade resorna ersatte privat bilanvändning.Elsparkcyklar visade sig dock vara ett mycket starkare substitut för taxi / "ride-hail" resor:10% av elsparkcykel-resorna ersatte en sådan transport. Undersökningsresultaten användesför att jämföra den globala uppvärmningspotentialen (GWP) för elsparkcyklar med de medelsom användes annars. Det visade sig att de färdmedel som folk skulle ha använt om de intehade åkt elsparkcykel hade en GWP på 64g per km per resa, vilket jämförs med 131g(Moreau et al, 2020) och 125g (Hollingsworth et al, 2019) för elsparkcyklar rapporterade ilitteraturen och 35g rapporterade i en studie utförd på uppdrag av Voi - ettelsparkcykelföretag (EY, 2020). För en djupare inblick i dessa siffror hänvisas till avsnitten2.2.1 och 6.2.3 i uppsatsen. Tidpunkten för undersökningen gav en unik möjlighet att utforska effekterna av Covid-19 påresor med elsparkcyklar. Här visar studien på en statistiskt signifikant skillnad iöverflyttningspotential gällande resor som gjordes före och efter covid-19-utbrottet (P-värde=0,027). De resor som gjordes under covid-19-pandemin hade mer än dubbelt så storsannolikhet att ersätta bilanvändning än resor som gjordes före utbrottet. Diskussionen av studiens resultat tar sin utgångspunkt i teorier om hållbarhetsomställning. Idiskussionen framhålls att endast elsparkcyklar inte kommer bidra till en omställning. Men ihändelse av en mer allmän övergång från ägande till användning inom Stockholmstransportsektor, skulle elsparkcyklar (och annan mikromobilitet) kunna ersätta ett ökat antaltaxi-/"ride-hail" resor, vilket i så fall skulle innebära ett bidrag till ett mer miljömässigthållbart transportsystem. I den sista delen av uppsatsen diskuteras policyalternativ somskulle hjälpa elsparkcyklar att hitta en tydlig nisch inom Stockholms transportsystem, där debäst kan bidra till att realisera övergripande miljö- och hållbarhetsmål. Vidare diskuteras behov av att inkludera flera typer av aktörer, att använda ett flexibelt "tak" på antaletelsparkcyklar, anbudsprocesser som styrs av miljökrav, samt tillämpning avparkeringsavgifter och minimipriser för elsparkcyklar.