La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) est une maladie neurodégénérative du système nerveux central qui se caractérise notamment par l’accumulation de peptide beta-amyloïde (Aβ) dans le tissus nerveux. Dans la première partie de cette thèse nous avons montré que l’interaction des oligomères Aβ1-42 de haut poids moléculaire avec la membrane plasmique des cellules PC12 différenciées ou des cellules nerveuses (neurones et astrocytes primaires) provoque des variations de la [Ca2+]i dépendant de l’activation des récepteurs NMDA. Dans la seconde partie nous avons montré qu’une pré-exposition des cellules PC12 et des cellules nerveuses à de faibles concentrations de peptide Aβ module l’interaction ultérieure des oligomères avec la membrane plasmique. Enfin dans le cadre d’une collaboration avec l’entreprise Innovative Health Diagnostics (IHD) nous avons participé à la caractérisation d’une sonde amyloïde fluorescente développée pour réaliser des tests de détection de la MA à partir d’échantillons sanguins. / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system which is characterized in particular by the accumulation of beta amyloïde peptide (Aβ) in nerve tissues. In the first part of this thesis we showed that the interaction of high molecular weight Aβ1-42 oligomers with the plasma membrane of differenciated PC12 or nerve cells (neurons and astrocytes) triggers variations of their depending on the activation of the NMDA receptors. In the second part we showed that a pre-exposure of PC12 and nerve cells with low concentrations Aβ1-42 of modulates the later interaction of oligomers with the plasma membrane. Finally in collaboration with the company Innovative Health Diagnostics (IHD) we participated in the characterization of a fluorescent amyloid probe developed to realize detection test of AD from blood samples.

Alterações no sistema glutamatérgico e mudanças no funcionamento do córtex pré-frontal medial (CPFm) têm sido associadas a diversos distúrbios psiquiátricos, dentre os quais a ansiedade. Também é reconhecido que alterações nas concentrações circulantes de glicocorticóides podem induzir alterações nas sinapses e circuitos glutamatérgicos e, consequentemente, modificar a reatividade emocional dos animais. Embora se saiba que os glicocorticóides influenciam a liberação de glutamato no CPFm, a interação entre os efeitos mediados pelos receptores mineralocorticóides (MR) ou glicocorticóides (GR) e o sistema glutamatérgico, na expressão da resposta condicionada de medo, ainda não está elucidada. Nesse sentido, os objetivos do presente estudo foram investigar (i) a influência dos glicocorticóides na expressão do medo condicionado contextual e seus efeitos sobre a atividade do CPFm em ratos, (ii) o papel dos receptores MR e GR localizados no córtex prelímbico (PrL) na expressão da resposta condicionada de congelamento e (iii) a interação entre os mecanismos mediados pelos glicocorticoides e o sistema glutamatérgico, via receptores do tipo NMDA, na expressão dessa resposta. Ratos Wistar machos foram tratados com veículo ou metirapona, um bloqueador de síntese de corticosterona, e expostos a um contexto previamente pareado com choque nas patas. Foram avaliados o tempo de medo contextual (comportamento de congelamento) e a expressão de proteína Fos em diferentes regiões do CPFm. Os resultados mostraram que a exposição ao contexto aversivo levou a um aumento significativo da expressão de congelamento e de proteína Fos no PrL, nas áreas do córtex cingulado anterior 1 e 2 (Cg1 e Cg2), mas não no córtex infralímbico. A administração de metirapona levou a uma diminuição da expressão de congelamento e de proteína Fos no PrL, Cg1 e Cg2. A administração bilateral de espironolactona, um antagonista de receptores MR, no PrL antes do teste diminuiu as respostas de medo e o pré-tratamento com RU38486, um antagonista de receptores GR, aboliu este efeito. Os resultados também mostraram que a diminuição da resposta de congelamento induzida por injeções intra-PrL de corticosterona foi abolida pela administração prévia de RU38486, mas não por espironolactona, indicando que a corticosterona recruta preferencialmente os receptores GR para produzir esses efeitos. A administração prévia do antagonista de receptor NMDA também preveniu os efeitos induzidos pelo tratamento com corticosterona sugerindo que, no PrL, parte dos efeitos rápidos do glicocorticóides sobre a expressão do medo condicionado se dá por uma interação com o sistema glutamatérgico. A administração de NMDA no PrL, antes do teste, induziu efeitos similares ao tratamento com corticosterona nessa região. De modo geral, os resultados sugerem que a liberação de corticosterona durante a apresentação de um estímulo condicionado aversivo influencia a atividade do CPFm de maneira que, uma mudança no equilíbrio das atividades mediadas por MR e GR, por meio de um aumento da atividade de GR, interage com o sistema glutamatérgico via aumento da atividade dos receptores NMDA influenciando a expressão da resposta de medo condicionado contextual. Sugere-se que a redução na expressão do medo condicionado observada após a administração local de corticosterona no PrL também seja decorrente de mudanças no equilíbrio entre MR e GR em direção a um aumento de suas ações mediadas por GR, assim como um aumento na liberação de glutamato e maior atividade de receptores NMDA nessa região. / Changes in the glutamatergic system and in the functioning of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) have been associated with different psychiatric disorders, including anxiety. It is also recognized that changes in circulating levels of glucocorticoids can induce changes in glutamatergic synapses and circuits and therefore alter the emotional reactivity of animals. Although is known that glucocorticoids can influence the release of glutamate in the mPFC, the interaction between mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) activation and the glutamatergic activity on the expression of conditioned fear response is not yet elucidated. The aims of the present study were to investigate (i) the influence of glucocorticoids on the expression of contextual conditioned fear and its effects in the activity of the mPFC in rats, (ii) the role of MR and GR in the prelimbic cortex (PrL) on expression of conditioned freezing response and (iii) a possible interaction between the effects mediated by the glucocorticoids and the glutamatergic system, via NMDA receptors on the expression of this response. Male Wistar rats were treated with vehicle or metyrapone, a corticosterone synthesis blocker, and exposed to a context previously paired with footshock. The time of contextual fear (freezing behavior) and Fos protein expression in different regions of mPFC were evaluated. The results showed that exposure to the aversive context induced a significant increase in freezing and Fos protein expression in the PrL, in the anterior cingulate cortex, areas 1 and 2 (Cg1 and Cg2), but not in the infralimbic cortex. The administration of metyrapone induced a decrease on the expression of freezing and Fos in PrL, Cg1 and Cg2. Bilateral administration of spironolactone (a MR antagonist) in PrL before the test, decreased conditioned fear response and the pretreatment with RU38486 (a GR antagonist) abolished this effect. The results also showed that the decrease of freezing response induced by intra-PrL corticosterone injections was abolished by prior administration of RU38486, but not by spironolactone, indicating that corticosterone recruits preferentially GR to produce the observed effects. Prior administration of the NMDA receptor antagonist also prevented the effects induced by corticosterone treatment in the PrL, suggesting that part of rapid effects of glucocorticoids on the expression of conditioned fear occurs by an interaction with the glutamatergic system. Additionally, NMDA administration in the PrL prior to the test induced similar effects to corticosterone treatment in this region. Overall, the results suggest that the release of corticosterone during the presentation of a conditioned aversive stimulus influences the mPFC activity so that a change in the balance of the activities mediated by MR and GR through an increase in GR activity interacts with the glutamatergic system by increasing the activity of NMDA receptors influencing the expression of contextual fear conditioning response. It is suggested that the reduction in the expression of conditioned fear observed after local administration of corticosterone in the PrL is also due to changes in the balance between MR and GR towards an increase in the actions mediated by GR, as well as an increase in the release of glutamate and a greater NMDA receptor activity in this region.

Les neurones dopaminergiques (DA) mésencéphaliques jouent un rôle prépondérant dans de nombreuses fonctions cérébrales telles que la motivation, mais ils sont également impliques dans l’émergence de pathologies telles que la maladie de Parkinson et l’addiction aux drogues. Ces processus ayant en commun de modifier l’activité de décharge des neurones DA mésencéphaliques, il est d’une importance primordiale de comprendre les mécanismes sous-tendant cette activité. Parmi les différents canaux ioniques et récepteurs impliques dans la génération de l’activité de décharge des neurones DA, les récepteurs au glutamate de type N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDAR) et les canaux potassiques calcium-dépendants SK régulent fortement le patron de décharge, et interagissent fonctionnellement dans divers types neuronaux incluant les neurones DA. Cependant, les mécanismes mis en jeu dans cette régulation restent méconnus. Le couplage fonctionnel des NMDAR et des canaux SK dépendant notamment de leur distribution membranaire relative, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que la diffusion latérale des NMDAR, processus qui régule la localisation de surface du récepteur, pouvait jouer un rôle dans le patron de décharge des neurones DA via la modulation de la fonction des canaux SK. Nous avons tout d’abord montre que les NMDAR membranaires étaient mobiles dans les neurones DA en culture. L’altération de leur trafic de surface par immobilisation avec des anticorps anti-NMDAR modifie profondément la régularité du patron de décharge des neurones DA issus de tranches aigües de mésencéphale, alors que le blocage pharmacologique des NMDAR est sans effet. De plus, j’ai mis en évidence qu’un bloqueur des canaux SK, l’apamine, qui induit un changement similaire de la regularite du patron de décharge en condition contrôle, etait moins efficace lorsque la mobilité latérale des NMDAR etait alteree. Ainsi, ces résultats démontrent que la dynamique de surface des NMDAR module le patron de décharge des neurones DA en régulant la fonction des canaux SK. / Midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons play several key functions in the brain such as the processing of salient information but are also associated with the emergence of pathologies including Parkinson’s disease and drug addiction. Because these processes have in common to modify the firing activity of midbrain DA neurons, it is of crucial importance to understand the mechanisms underlying this activity. Among the various ions channels and receptors involved in the generation of the firing activity of midbrain DA neurons, glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) and calciumdependent potassium SK channels strongly modulate the firing pattern and functionally interact in several neuronal types including DA neurons. However, the mechanisms by which they regulate the firing pattern are poorly understood. Since the functional coupling between NMDAR and SK channels depends on their relative membrane distribution, we hypothesized that the lateral diffusion of NMDAR, which regulates the surface localization of the receptor, could play a role in the firing pattern of midbrain DA neurons through the modulation of SK channel function. We showed first that membrane NMDAR was highly mobile in cultured DA neurons. Alteration of its surface trafficking by a crosslink with NMDAR antibodies profoundly modified the regularity of the firing pattern of DA neurons in midbrain slices, whereas pharmacological blockade of NMDAR did not affect it. Furthermore, a SK channel blocker, which induces a similar change in the firing regularity in control conditions, was less effective when NMDAR surface trafficking was altered. Taken together, these results demonstrate that NMDAR surface dynamics modulate the firing pattern of midbrain DA neurons by regulating SK channel function.

Glutamatergic receptors are targets for many L-glutamate structure analogues, which cause neurotoxicity. This study investigated the actions of two dicarboxylic compounds, the first had cyclic framework and rigid structure, and the other had an acyclic framework and flexible structure, on the glutamatergic neurotransmission, oxidative damage and behavior in mice. The first compound evaluated was D,L-cis-2,3-pyrrolidine dicarboxylate (D,L-cis-2,3-PDC), a new glutamate analogue. D,L-cis-2,3-PDC reduced sodium-independent [3H]-L-glutamate binding by 50% in lysed membrane preparations and had no effect on sodium-dependent glutamate binding. Intracerebroventricular administration (ICV) of D,L-cis-2,3-PDC (7.5 - 25 nmol/ 5μl) induced dose-dependent tonic-clonic convulsions. The co-administration of MK-801 (7 nmol/ 2.5 μl; ICV), a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, with D,L-cis-2,3-PDC (16.5 nmol/ 2.5 μl; ICV) fully protected the animals against D,L-cis-2,3-PDC-induced convulsions, while the co-administration of DNQX (10 nmol/ 2.5 μl; ICV), a AMPA and KA receptors antagonist, increased the latency to convulsion and did not alter the percentage of animals that had convulsions. These results suggest that D,L-cis-2,3-PDC-induced effects are mediated predominantly by NMDA receptors activation. The second compound studied was succinate, the accumulating substrate in succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) deficiencies and SDH inhibitor intoxication. Adult male mice received an ICV injection of succinate (0.7, 1.0 and 1.7 μmol/ 5 μl) or 0.9% NaCl (5 μl) and had their exploratory behavior assessed in an open field for 10 min. Succinate (0.7 and 1.0 μmol/ 5 μl) decreased locomotor activity behavior and increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and protein carbonylation in the forebrain. Conversely, 1.7 μmol of succinate did not alter locomotor activity or oxidative damage parameters. The involvement of NMDA receptors in the succinate-induced increase of total protein carbonylation content and exploratory behavior inhibition was assessed by co-administrating MK-801 (7 nmol/ 2.5 μl, ICV) with succinate (1 μmol/ 2.5 μl, ICV). The co-administration of MK-801 protected against succinate-induced increase of total protein carbonylation and decrease of locomotor activity. These results suggest the involvement of NMDA receptors in these effects of succinate, which may of particular relevance for succinate-accumulating conditions, such as SDH inhibitors intoxication and inherited SDH deficiencies. / Os receptores glutamatérgicos são alvos da ação de muitas neurotoxinas análogas ao L-glutamato. Neste estudo foram investigadas as ações de dois compostos dicarboxílicos, um de cadeia cíclica e estrutura rígida e o outro de cadeia acíclica e estrutura flexível, sobre a neurotransmissão glutamatérgica, dano oxidativo e comportamento em roedores. No primeiro trabalho foi investigado se o D,L-cis-2,3-dicarboxilato de pirrolidina (D,L-cis-2,3-PDC) altera a ligação de [3H]-L-glutamato em membranas plasmáticas de córtex de ratos adultos e se os receptores N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA) estão envolvidos nas convulsões induzidas por este composto. O D,L-cis-2,3-PDC reduziu a ligação de [3H]-L-glutamato Na+-independente em 50% nas preparações de membranas rompidas e não apresentou efeito sobre a ligação de [3H]-L-glutamato Na+-dependente. A administração intracerebroventricular (ICV) de D,L-cis-2,3-PDC (7,5; 25 nmol/ 5 μl) induziu convulsões generalizadas do tipo tônico-clônica nos camundongos, de uma maneira dose-dependente. A co-administração de MK-801 (7 nmol/ 2,5 μl; ICV), um antagonista não-competitivo dos receptores NMDA, com D,L-cis-2,3-PDC (16,5 nmol/ 2,5 μl; ICV), protegeu totalmente os animais das convulsões induzidas por D,L-cis-2,3-PDC, enquanto que a co-administração de DNQX (10 nmol/ 2,5 μl; ICV), um antagonista dos receptores AMPA e KA, aumentou a latência das convulsões, mas não alterou a percentagem de animais que tiveram convulsões. Estes resultados sugerem que os efeitos induzidos por D,L-cis-2,3-PDC são mediados principalmente pela ativação dos receptores NMDA. No segundo estudo, foi investigado se o sucinato, substrato que se acumula nas deficiências da enzima sucinato desidrogenase (SDH) e nas intoxicações por inibidores da SDH, causa lipoperoxidação e carbonilação protéica, e se os receptores NMDA estão envolvidos no dano oxidativo induzido por sucinato. Camundongos machos adultos receberam uma injeção ICV de sucinato (0,7; 1,0; 1,7 μmol/ 5 μl) ou 0,9 % de NaCl (5 μl) e seu comportamento foi analisado em um campo aberto por 10 minutos. Sucinato (0,7; 1,0 μmol/ 5 μl) diminuiu a atividade locomotora e aumentou as substâncias que reagem ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS) e carbonilação protéica no cérebro. Por outro lado, 1,7 μmol de sucinato não alterou a atividade locomotora ou os parâmetros de dano oxidativo. O envolvimento dos receptores NMDA no aumento induzido por sucinato do conteúdo de carbonilação protéica e da inibição do comportamento exploratório foi avaliado pela co-administração de MK-801 (7nmol/ 2,5 μl, ICV) com sucinato (1 μmol/ 2,5 μl, ICV). A co-administração de MK801 protegeu contra o aumento induzido por sucinato da carbonilação protéica e na diminuição da atividade locomotora. Esses resultados sugerem o envolvimento dos receptores NMDA nesses efeitos do sucinato, os quais são de grande relevância nas condições em que acumula sucinato, tais como as intoxicações com inibidores da SDH e deficiências dessa enzima causadas por erros inatos do metabolismo.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The memory may be studied according with memory's phases, which is acquisition, consolidation and recall. Memories once consolidated, are no more susceptible to interventions, but when reactivated, some of these memories again become labile and vulnerable, and to persist need to have a new stabilization process called reconsolidation. Previous studies described that endogenous polyamines, spermine and spermidine, which bind and modulate the activity of NMDA receptors are involved in memory acquisition and consolidation. However there are no studies showing the effect of these drugs on memory reconsolidation. Accordingly, the aim of this study was investigate the effect of polyamines on fear memory reconsolidation in rats. Male Wistar rats were trained in a fear conditioning apparatus using a 0.4 mA footshock as unconditioned stimulus. Twenty four hours after training, animals were re-exposed to the apparatus in the absence of shock (reactivation session). Immediately after the reactivation session, SPD (1 30 mg/kg, i.p.), the antagonist of the polyamine binding site at the NMDA receptor, arcaine (0.1 10 mg/kg, i.p.) or spermidine plus arcaine were injected, and the animals were tested in the same apparatus 24 h later. Freezing scores at testing were considered a measure of memory. While SPD (3 and 10 mg/kg) improved, arcaine (1 and 10 mg/kg) impaired memory reconsolidation. These drugs had no effect on memory if they were administered in the absence of reactivation, or 6 h after reactivation session. Arcaine (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) prevented SPD (3 mg/kg)-induced improvement of memory reconsolidation. Accordingly, SPD (1 mg/kg) prevented arcaine (10 mg/kg)-induced impairment of memory reconsolidation. The amnesic effect of arcaine was not reversed by arcaine administration prior to test, ruling out state dependence in this effect. These results suggest that systemic administration of polyamine binding site ligands modulate memory reconsolidation, however further studies are required to elucidate the mechanism by which polyamines modulate memory reconsolidation. / A memória pode ser estudada de acordo com as suas fases, que são a aquisição, a consolidação e a evocação. As memórias, uma vez consolidadas, não podem mais ser modificadas, porém quando reativadas, ou seja, quando recuperadas, muitas destas voltam a se tornar instáveis e vulneráveis e para que persistam precisam passar por um novo processo de estabilização, chamado reconsolidação. Têm sido descrito que as poliaminas endógenas, espermidina e espermina, que se ligam e modulam a atividade do receptor NMDA, estão envolvidas na aquisição e na consolidação da memória. Contudo, não há trabalhos mostrando o efeito destas substâncias na reconsolidação da memória. Desta forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar o efeito das poliaminas na reconsolidação da memória de medo em ratos. Para isso, ratos machos adultos foram treinados na tarefa de medo condicionado contextual, onde receberam três choque de 0,4 mA, com intervalo de 40 seg entre cada choque e, 24 horas após, os animais foram recolocados no aparelho do treino por um período de 3 min, na ausência de choque, para reativar a memória. Após a reativação foi administrado, pela via intraperitoneal, salina, espermidina (1-30 mg/kg), arcaína (0,1-10 mg/kg) ou espermidina mais arcaína e vinte e quatro horas após, os animais foram testados, onde foi avaliado a imobilidade destes durante 6 min. Foram realizados experimentos controles para avaliar a especificidade das drogas no processo de reconsolidação. Além disso, foi avaliado se o possível efeito da arcaína na reconsolidação poderia ser explicado por dependência de estado. Assim, enquanto a espermidina (3 e 10 mg/kg) melhorou, a arcaína (1 e 10 mg/kg) piorou a reconsolidação da memória. Estas drogas não tiveram efeito sobre a memória quando foram administradas na ausência da reativação ou 6 horas após. A arcaína (0,1 mg/kg) preveniu a melhora da reconsolidação da memória induzida pela espermidina (3 mg/kg) e por sua vez, a espermidina (1 mg/kg) preveniu o prejuízo da reconsolidação da memória induzido pela arcaína (10 mg/kg). O efeito amnésico da arcaína não foi revertido pela administração da mesma dose de arcaína antes do teste, descartando a hipótese de dependência de estado para o efeito da arcaína na reconsolidação. Estes resultados sugerem que a administração sistêmica dos ligantes do sítio de ligação das poliaminas do receptor NMDA modulam a reconsolidação da memória, todavia são necessários mais estudos a fim de elucidar o mecanismo pelo qual as poliaminas modulam a reconsolidação da memória.

La schizophrénie est un trouble mental débilitant qui se caractérise par des perturbations de la pensée, des émotions et de la cognition. Ces processus d’intégration fonctionnelle sont généralement associés à des oscillations bioélectriques cérébrales synchrones dans la bande de fréquence gamma (30-80 Hz), lesquelles sont aussi altérées chez des patients souffrant de schizophrénie. Ce travail de thèse vise à développer des méthodes et des outils pour étudier les mécanismes neuronaux sous-tendant les altérations de ces oscillations physiopathologiques. Pour ce faire, nous avons développé des modèles de rongeurs de laboratoire pour la schizophrénie. Nous avons démontré que des modifications génétiques ou pharmacologiques conduisent à des perturbations des oscillations gamma et que des médicaments antipsychotiques peuvent les moduler. / Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disorder that is characterised by a breakdown in normal thought processes, blunted emotional responses and a variety of cognitive difficulties. Gamma frequency (30 – 80 Hz) oscillations are associated with many processes that are disrupted in people with schizophrenia memory, perception and attention. This thesis aimed to develop methods and tools to investigate the basic mechanisms that underlie the alterations in gamma frequency brain activity that are observed in patients suffering from schizophrenia. To do this we developed a variety of experimental animal models for schizophrenia. We successfully demonstrated that both genetic and pharmacological changes lead to alterations in gamma oscillations and that antipsychotic medications can modulate them.

Succinate is a dicarboxylic acid that accumulates due to succinate dehydrogenase inhibition. This dicarboxylic acid has a biphasic effect on neural activity in vitro that seems to be mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. The NMDA receptor is distributed throughout the central nervous system and mediates synaptic plasticity-related events, such as learning and memory. Although it has been described that succinate modulates NMDA conductance, it is not known if this organic acid modulates learning and me mory. Therefore, in the present study we investigated whether the immediate post-training systemic or intrahippocampal administration of succinate affects the memory of fear conditioning in rats. In addition, we investigated whether the NMDA and β-adrenergic receptors are involved in the facilitatory effect of succinate on memory. Systemic (0,00005, 0,0005, 0,005, 0,05 and 0,5 mg/kg i.p) or bilateral intra-hippocampal (0.21 pmol i.h.) immediate post-training administration of succinate biphasically facilitated contextual fear conditioning and had no effect on conditioning to tone. Systemic or intra-hippocampal administrations of MK-801 (0,001 mg/kg i.p. or 0,21 pmol i.h. respectively), a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, at a dose that had no effect per se, reversed the facilitatory effect of succinate on contextual fear conditioning. The systemic administration of propranolol (10 mg/kg i.p.), a β-adrenergic antagonist, at a dose that had no effect per se, also reversed the facilitatory effect of succinate on contextual fear conditioning. The administration of succinate (0,005 mg/kg i.p.) immediately after training and 15 minutes before the test did not affect the performance of the animals on fear conditioning. These results suggest that the facilitatory effect of succinate on the memory of fear conditioning involves NMDA and β-adrenergic receptors. The results also indicate that the facilitatory effect of succinate on memory is not related to state-dependence / O sucinato é um intermediário do ciclo de Kreks e também da cadeia respiratória, mas que também parece ter funções não relacionadas ao metabolismo energético. De fato, este ácido dicarboxílico tem efeito bifásico sobre a atividade neural in vitro, que parece ser mediado pelo receptor glutamatérgico N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA). O receptor NMDA está presente em todo o sistema nervo central (SNC) e os processos mediados por este receptor incluem plasticidade sináptica e formação de circuitos neurais. Embora tenha sido descrito que o sucinato modula a atividade neural in vitro, não se sabe se este ácido orgânico modula processos fisiológicos ligados ao receptor NMDA, como o aprendizado e memória. Consequentemente, neste estudo foi investigado o efeito da administração sistêmica e intrahipocampal de sucinato, MK-801 e propranolol sobre a consolidação da memória em ratos, utilizando a tarefa de medo condicionado clássico. Posteriormente se investigou se os efeitos do sucinato sobre a memória envolvem dependência de estado. O teste do medo condicionado consistiu na apresentação de estímulos pareados, condicionado (tom 2000 Hz 90 dB/10 s) e incondicionado (choque 0.6 mA/1 s). O estado de imobilidade do animal foi utilizado como um indicativo de memória nas sessões de avaliação de memória ao contexto e ao tom. A administração sistêmica de sucinato nas doses de 0,00005, 0,0005, 0,005, 0,05 e 0,5 mg/kg i.p. imediatamente após o treino melhorou a memória. Contudo, a dose de 5 mg/kg de sucinato não alterou a memória dos animais, caracterizando um efeito bifásico sobre a memória. Essa melhora da memória induzida por sucinato (0,005 mg/kg i.p.) foi revertido pela administração pós-treino de um antagonista do receptor NMDA, MK-801 (0,001 mg/kg i.p.) e pela administração imediatamente após o treino de um bloqueador adrenérgico, propranolol (10 mg/kg i.p.). A administração de sucinato (0,005 mg/kg i.p.) imediatamente após o treino e 15 minutos antes do teste não afetou a performance dos animais, não caracterizando dependência de estado. Nos experimentos que visaram identificar se a administração central de sucinato alterava a memória, os animais foram canulados bilateralmente no hipocampo e após a recuperação cirúrgica, recebiam injeções bilaterais imediatamente após o treino, de sucinato (0,21 pmol i.h.) que melhorou a memória. A administração imediatamente após o treino de MK- 801 (0,22 nmol i.h.) foi capaz de reverter esse efeito facilitador do sucinato sobre a memória. Estes resultados sugerem que o efeito facilitador da memória induzida pela administração de sucinato é mediado pelo receptor NMDA e envolve de alguma maneira o sistema adrenérgico

La synapse glutamatergique est formée par une présynapse axonale et une postsynapse dont le support est l'épine dendritique. L'épine présente des récepteurs membranaires du glutamate liés à des protéines d'échafaudage sous-membranaires. Ces protéines de la densité postsynaptique (PSD) permettent de relier les récepteurs à leurs voies de signalisation. Les récepteurs NMDA sont reliés aux récepteurs métabotropiques du glutamate (mGluR1/5) via le complexe PSD95/GKAP/Shank/Homer. Au cours de ma thèse, j'ai caractérisé la dynamique d'interactions protéiques au sein de ce complexe et étudié les conséquences fonctionnelles sur l'activité des récepteurs.Homer est une protéine multimérique reliant mGluR5 au complexe PSD95/GKAP/Shank. La forme monomérique Homer1a est incapable de relier mGluR5 à Shank. Nous avons montré que la rupture du complexe par l'expression de Homer1a permet une interaction directe entre les récepteurs NMDA et mGluR5 et une inhibition des courants NMDA. Nous avons validé que ce processus intervient lors de la potentialisation synaptique. J'ai également étudié le rôle de l'interaction entre GKAP et DLC2, une chaîne légère de transporteurs moléculaires. Après avoir caractérisé l'occurrence et la dynamique de l'interaction GKAP-DLC2, j'ai montré que l'activité neuronale entraîne une augmentation de cette interaction et une accumulation synaptique de GKAP. De plus, cette interaction permet d'acheminer PSD95 dans les épines et d'augmenter les courants NMDA. L'ensemble de ces résultats montre que les protéines d'échafaudage participent à la signalisation des récepteurs, modulent la transmission synaptique et sous-tendent les mécanismes de plasticité à long terme. / The glutamatergic synapse is composed by an axonal presynapse and a postsynapse which is supported by a dendritic spine. The spine contains membrane glutamatergic receptors connected to sub-membrane scaffolding proteins. These postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins allow to link receptors to their signaling pathways. NMDA receptors are associated to metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1/5) through the PSD95/GKAP/Shank/Homer protein complex. During my PhD, I have characterized protein-protein interactions dynamic in this complex and studied functional consequences on receptor activity.Homer is a multimeric protein linking mGluR5 to the PSD95/GKAP/Shank complex. The monomeric form Homer1a is unable to connect mGluR5 to Shank. We have shown that complex disruption by Homer1a expression induces a direct interaction between NMDA and mGluR5 and subsequent inhibition of NMDA currents. We have shown that this process occurs during synaptic potentiation.I have also studied the interaction between GKAP and DLC2, a light chain shared by molecular transporters. I have characterized the occurrence and dynamic of GKAP-DLC2 interaction and shown that neuronal activity increases this interaction leading to synaptic accumulation of GKAP. Moreover, this interaction allows PSD95 targeting into dendritic spines and NMDA currents increase. Together, these results show that scaffolding proteins participate to receptor signaling, modulate synaptic transmission and underlie long-term synaptic plasticity mechanisms.

In everybody’s lives, there are strong emotional or surprising events that, for being special, are vividly remembered for a lifetime. Sometimes, these memories include one-shot images or details of associated daily life events that, for being ordinary, should have been rapidly forgotten. Why and how does the brain form and retain detailed memories of trivial events? The synaptic tagging and capture (STC) hypothesis of memory formation (Frey & Morris, Nature 1997) provides a theoretical framework that might explain the formation of these flashbulb memories at a cellular level. The hypothesis suggests that strong events, producing long-lasting memories, might stabilise memory for weak events by up-regulating the synthesis of late-phase plasticity-related proteins in neurons encoding memory traces for both events. This thesis tests this prediction of the STC hypothesis during the formation of long-term place memory in rodents. First, two new behavioural tasks are developed which provide sensitive measures of rapidly acquired place memory persistence - a new one-trial place memory task in the “event arena” and a modified delayed matching-to-place (DMP) protocol in the watermaze. Persistence of place memory is assessed and compared in these tasks. Given the important role of NMDA receptor activation during STC mechanisms, the contribution of NMDA and AMPA receptor activation in the hippocampus for the encoding and retrieval of place memory, respectively, is also established. Finally, weak and strong encoding events, leading to the formation of either shortor long-lasting place memory in the watermaze DMP task, are characterized. A second series of experiments investigates the possibility of synergistic interactions between different encoding events that occur in two different watermazes. First, weak and strong encoding events are arranged to occur within a short time-window to test behavioural analogues of the “strong-before-weak” and “weak-before-strong” STC paradigms characterised in electrophysiological experiments in rat hippocampal slices (Frey and Morris, 1997, 1998b). Then, after establishing i) the time course and local specificity of protein synthesis inhibition by intra-hippocampal infusion of anisomycin in vivo, ii) the dependence of long-term memory for strong encoding events on protein synthesis in the hippocampus, and iii) the induction of transcriptional and translational mechanisms in the hippocampus by strong encoding events, a behavioural analogue of the “strong-before-strong” STC paradigm (Frey and Morris, 1997) is also investigated. The results of these experiments are supportive of i) a role for hippocampal NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic plasticity in the encoding of rapidly acquired place memory; ii) a role for hippocampal AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in both encoding and retrieval of memory; and iii) a role for transcriptional and translational mechanisms in the hippocampus in the stabilisation of place memory. However, no evidence could be found supporting the involvement of synaptic tagging and capture mechanisms during the formation of long-lasting place memory.

Injury causes increased pain sensation in humans and animals but the mechanisms underlying the emergence of persistent pathological pain states, which arise in the absence of on-going physical damage, are unclear. Therefore, elucidating the physiological regulation of such intractable pain is of exceptional biomedical importance. It is well known that endogenous activation of µ-opioid receptors (MORs) provides relief from acute pain but the consequences of prolonged endogenous opioidergic signaling have not been considered. Here we test the hypothesis that the intrinsic mechanisms of MOR signaling promote pathological sensitization of pain circuits in the spinal cord. We found that tissue inflammation produces agonist-independent MOR signaling in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, which tonically represses hyperalgesia for months, even after complete recovery from injury and re-established normal pain thresholds. Disruption of this constitutive activity with MOR inverse agonists reinstated pain and precipitated cellular, somatic and aversive signs of physical withdrawal. This phenomenon required N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation of calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclase type 1. Thus, we present a novel mechanism of long-lasting opioid analgesia that regulates the transition from acute to chronic pain while, in parallel, generates physical dependence. In conclusion we propose that the prevalence of chronic pain syndromes may result from a failure in constitutive signaling of spinal MORs and a loss of endogenous analgesic control.