Thesis (MA)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In all communities parents want to pass on strategies that will promote the survival of their children and foster their cultural competence. The ‘component model of parenting’, formulated by Keller (2000; 2007), captures universal propensities of parenting as well as cultural differences. The model hypothesizes that parenting styles are composed of different parenting systems, namely primary care, body contact, body stimulation, object stimulation, face-to-face interaction, and vocal stimulation. The proximal parenting style emphasizes primary care, body contact, and body stimulation, while the distal style of parenting focuses on verbal exchanges, object stimulation, and face-to-face interaction within the context of exclusive attention. According to Keller (2007), the dominance of certain systems over others can vary across cultural communities. This study aims to examine the cross-cultural conceptions of different adaptive and non-adaptive attachment qualities in three month old infants and their caregivers. This study explores whether culture-specific norms affect the development of different attachment qualities. It focuses on describing indigenous conceptions about parenting practices, socialization strategies, and caregiver beliefs. The study was conducted in the Western Cape region of South Africa. Participants included 25 mothers living in the greater Stellenbosch area and 29 mothers living in Khayelitsha. The measures included a socio-demographic questionnaire, spot observation videos, a picture card interview, and a socialization goals questionnaire. Data were coded according to coding schemes developed by Otto (2008). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, Mann-Whitney tests, and ANOVAs. The results indicated the Khayelitsha sample favoured a multiple caregiving arrangement, the proximal parenting style, and emphasized the importance of relational socialization goals. The greater Stellenbosch sample favoured an exclusive caregiving arrangement and emphasized the importance of autonomous socialization goals. Contrary to our expectations the greater Stellenbosch sample also favoured the proximal parenting style. The data demonstrates that cultural differences influence parenting practices and strategies. The data reported in this study challenge attachment theory’s universalism and provide an exploratory analysis of the different cultural conceptions regarding adaptive and non-adaptive attachment qualities. Further research using the same methodology needs to be conducted in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In alle gemeenskappe wil ouers strategieë oordra wat die oorlewing van hulle kinders bevorder en hulle kulturele bevoegdheid koester. Die ‘component model of parenting’, wat universele neigings en kulturele verkille in ouerskap inkorporeer, is geformuleer deur Keller (2000; 2007). Die model se hipotese stel voor dat ouerskap style uit verskillende ouerskap sisteme bestaan, naamlik primêre sorg, liggaamlike kontak, liggaamlike stimulasie, voorwerp stimulasie, een-tot-een interaksie, asook verbale stimulasie. Die proksimale ouerskap styl benadruk primêre sorg, liggaamlike kontak, en liggaamlike stimulasie. Daarteenoor fokus die distale ouerskap styl op verbale interaksie, voorwerp stimulasie, en een-tot-een interaksie binne die perke van ekslusiewe aandag. Volgens Keller (2007), kan die dominansie van sekere style bo ander verskil regoor kulturele gemeenskappe. Die studie poog om die onderskye multikulterele beskouinge rondom verbondenheids aanpassings, of gebrek daaraan, by drie maande oue kinders en hul versorgers te ondersoek. Die studie ondersoek of kultuur-spesifieke norme die ontwikkeling van verskillende verbondenheids kwaliteite affekteer. Dit fokus op die bekrywing van inheemse beskouinge omtrent ouerskap, sosialiserings strategieë, en die versorger se oortuigings. Die steekproef ws gebaseer in die Wes-Kaap van Suid-Afrika. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 25 moeders wat in die groter Stellenbosch area woon en 29 moeders wat in Khayelitsha woon. Die maatstawwe het ‘n sosio-demografiese vraelys, 20 op die plek observasie videos, ‘n onderhoud met prentjie kaarte, en ‘n sosialiserings doel vraelys ingesluit. Die data was gekodeer volgense koderings skemas wat deur Otto (2008) ontwikkel was. Die data was toe geanaliseer met beskrywende statistiek, t-toetse, Mann-Whitney toetse, en ANOVAs. Die resultate toon dat die Khayelitsha steekproef ‘n verskeie versorging benadering en die proksimale ouerskap styl verkies het. Hulle het die belangrikheid van verwante sosialiserings doelwitte benadruk. Die groter Stellenbosch steekproef het ‘n eksklusiewe versorgings benadering verkies en het die belangrikheid van autonome sosialiserings doelwitte benadruk. Teen verwagtinge het hulle ook die proksimale ouerskap styl verkies. Die data dui aan dat kulturele verskille beïnvloed ouerskap praktyke en strategieë. Die data wat in hierdie studie gerapporteer is, bevraagteken gehegtheidsteorie se universalisme en verskaf ‘n verkennende analise van die verskillende kulturele opvattings oor aanpasbare en nie-aanpasbare gehegtheids eienskappe. Verdere navorsing volgens dieselfde metodes moet nog in Suid Afrika gedoen word.

La thèse étudie la socialisation et l’éducation des enfants issus de couples mixtes formés par un parent italien et un parent originaire d’Afrique sub-saharienne, en Italie. Le travail s’inscrit dans une perspective écologique des familles et s’appuie sur les acquis théoriques des études sur la mixité et sur les processus d’acculturation. La démarche vise à comprendre les stratégies identitaires, culturelles et éducatives réalisées par les parents à partir de leur point de vue. Trois axes complémentaires sont explorés : expérience migratoire et formation du couple, transmission identitaire et culturelle, et stratégies éducatives parentales. La démarche empirique suit une approche compréhensive. L’étude concerne 19 familles. Des entretiens narratifs ont été menés auprès de 18 mères et 11 pères. Les résultats mettent en évidence les interactions entre expérience migratoire du parent africain et dynamiques familiales. La multi-dimensionnalité des contextes familiaux mixtes (linguistique, religieuse, ethnique, culturelle, sociale) crée des profils familiaux uniques. Une multi-factorialité impacte les stratégies parentales (vécu migratoire, origine socioéconomique, stigmatisation, « migration de contact et intérieure », relations avec les familles élargies et transnationalisme, relations sociales). Le rôle du contexte social est déterminant. La perception de discriminations raciales complique la gestion des différences. L’appartenance à des réseaux sociaux soutenant, la valorisation de la culture du parent migrant et le partage de valeurs communes aident les parents à dépasser ces difficultés. L’étude fournit des connaissances nouvelles sur un milieu familial émergeant. / This research studies socialization and education of children born from mixed-couples formed by an Italian and an African sub-Saharan parent, living in Italy. The study is developed within an ecological framework of families, and it is based on theoretical knowledge gained from studies concerning mixedness and acculturation processes. Our aim is to better understand identity, culture and education strategies developed by parents, and the way parents perceive such strategies. Three complementary directions of research are explored: migratory experience and union formation, transmission of identity and culture, and parenting strategies. The empirical stage of the research is based on a qualitative methodology. The investigation concerned 19 families; 18 mothers and 11 fathers were interviewed by narrative techniques. The results show the interaction between the African parent migratory experience and family dynamics. The various dimensions of the mixed familiar contexts (linguistic, religious, ethnic, cultural, social) create unique family profiles. Several factors impact parenting strategies: migration, socioeconomic background, stigmatization, « migration of contact and internal migration », relationships with the extended family and transnationalism, and social relationships. Social context is decisive. The perception of racial discrimination hinders dealing with differences. Supportive social networks, valorization of migrant culture, and sharing common values help parents to overcome these difficulties. This research provides a new knowledge about an emerging familiar context.

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[pt] Estudar como ocorre o desenvolvimento da criança diagnosticada com Transtorno do Espectro Autista, em espaços que não sejam somente o da escola, nos faz pensar como esta constrói suas interações sociais e também pode exercer os seus direitos e liberdades fundamentais como sujeito com deficiência, visando sua inclusão social e cidadania. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os modos e frequência de participação das crianças no TEA em espaços urbanos de lazer como fator relevante para seu desenvolvimento cognitivo, emocional e social. Realizou-se um estudo qualitativo que envolveu a análise do discurso de 16 cuidadores de uma clínica de Neuroreabilitação, localizada no Rio de Janeiro. Os resultados revelaram que as interações entre pais/cuidadores e filhos autistas quando são mútuas e colaborativas, juntamente com estratégias parentais igualitárias, são favoráveis e capazes de conduzir a criança a pensar a respeito de suas atitudes, logo, podem incentivar a conduta pró-social da criança. O estudo concluiu que a interação e a convivência entre pais/cuidadores e a criança autista em outros espaços, que não seja somente o da escola. Mostrou-se importante, mas que ainda existem muitos obstáculos e limitações impostos em relação ao TEA, no que diz respeito às suas potencialidades, resistências e preconceitos. Entretanto, apesar dos desafios, as iniciativas e a dedicação representam um enorme passo para encontrar maneiras dessas crianças se apropriarem do conhecimento e possivelmente desenvolverem suas habilidades. / [en] Studying how the development of children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder occurs, in spaces that are not only the school, makes us think about how they build their social interactions and also how they can exercise their fundamental rights and freedoms as a subject with disabilities, aiming at their social inclusion and citizenship. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the participation of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in urban spaces, as a relevant factor for their cognitive, social and emotional development. A qualitative study was carried out that involved the analysis of the speech of 16 caregivers of a Neurorehabilitation clinic, located in Rio de Janeiro. The results revealed that interactions between parents/caregivers and autistic children, when they are mutual and collaborative, together with egalitarian parenting strategies, are favorable and capable of leading the child to think about their attitudes, therefore, they can encourage prosocial behavior. of child. The study concluded that the interaction and coexistence between parents/caregivers and the autistic child in other spaces, other than the school, proved to be important, but that there are still many obstacles and limitations imposed in relation to ASD, in terms of concerns its potentialities, resistances and prejudices. However, despite the challenges, the initiatives and dedication represent a huge step towards finding ways for these children to appropriate knowledge and possibly develop their skills.

Contrairement aux parents de la population générale, ceux présentant une déficience intellectuelle (DI) sont plus à risque d’être référés à la protection de la jeunesse, ainsi que de perdre la garde de leur enfant. Malgré que plusieurs programmes d’intervention parentale soient disponibles pour soutenir les parents, la plupart ne sont pas adaptés au fonctionnement d’apprentissage des personnes présentant une DI. Le programme The Family Game est un outil conçu spécifiquement pour les parents présentant une DI dans le but d’enseigner des stratégies parentales positives et d’augmenter la coopération de l’enfant. Sous forme de jeu, le programme enseigne trois stratégies parentales : a) donner des consignes claires, b) renforcer les comportements coopératifs et c) corriger les comportements inappropriés de l’enfant. Une première étude expérimentale a évalué le programme The Family Game auprès de deux mères présentant une DI et ayant un enfant âgé de 10 et 14 ans (Tahir et al., 2015). Les résultats suggèrent une amélioration des stratégies parentales enseignées chez les mères et des résultats variables quant à la généralisation des apprentissages. Dans cette perspective, d’autres études expérimentales sont nécessaires afin de mesurer les effets de ce programme. Ce projet de mémoire visait à évaluer l’efficacité du programme The Family Game sur les stratégies parentales positives auprès de parents présentant une DI. Un couple de parents présentant une DI légère et une DI moyenne et ayant un enfant âgé de 3 ans ont complété l’étude. Un protocole à niveaux de base multiples en fonction des stratégies parentales à enseigner a été utilisé pour évaluer les effets du programme. Les résultats de cette étude sont similaires aux résultats de la recherche menée par Tahir et al. (2015). Ils indiquent une amélioration de l’utilisation des trois stratégies parentales chez le couple et un maintien des apprentissages un mois après le programme. La généralisation des apprentissages était toutefois variable chez les deux parents. En somme, le programme The Family Game montre des résultats encourageants auprès des parents présentant une DI. Cependant, des stratégies supplémentaires, comme la rétroaction par vidéo, devraient être intégrées au programme afin de favoriser la généralisation des apprentissages. / Unlike parents in the general population, parents with an intellectual disability (ID) are more at risk of being referred to youth protection as well as losing custody of their child. Although several parental intervention programs are available to support parents, most are not adapted to the learning functioning of individuals with ID. The Family Game is a training program designed specifically for parents with ID for improving the cooperation of the child by teaching positive behavior management strategies. The program uses a board game format to teach three parenting strategies: a) providing clear instructions, b) reinforcing cooperative behaviors, and c) correcting inappropriate behaviors. A first experimental study evaluated The Family Game program with two mothers with ID and children aged 10 and 14 (Tahir et al., 2015). The results suggest an improvement in the parenting strategies taught and variable results regarding the generalization of learning. Thus, further experimental studies are needed to measure the effects of this program. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of The Family Game program on positive parenting strategies of parents with an ID. A couple of parents with mild and moderate ID with a 3-year-old child participated in the study. A multiple baseline design across skills was used to assess program effects. The results of the study are similar to those reported by Tahir et al. (2015). We observed improvements in the use of the three parenting strategies by the father and the mother as well as maintenance of learning one month after the program. However, the generalization of learning remained variable for both parents. In sum, The Family Game program shows promising results with parents with ID. However, additional strategies, such as video feedback, should be integrated into the program to support generalization.

This study aims at exploring how fathers' parenting strategies and the relationship they have with their children influences the children's ability to form other relationships outside the home. The study is based on parenting strategies identified by Diana Baumrind. Reviewed literature state that where a relationship between the father and his children is good, the children are more confident, stable and secure and therefore able to form seemingly stable social relationships. Where the relationship between father and his children is unhealthy, the children may be unsure of themselves and find it harder to form relationship outside the home. The parenting strategy resulting in the best relationships between the father and his children is the authoritative parenting strategy. Authoritative fathers set rules and follow them through while allowing dialogue. They encourage the development of self-identity and are lovingly involved in their children's lives. All participating fathers in this study have a son and daughter in the age range 13 to 25 years and all are able to communicate in English. The four participating fathers are from different ethnic groups, religious faith and professions. For each father interviewed, a son and a daughter were interviewed too. The same father parenting strategies identified in the literature were identified in this study. Three fathers fit the description of the authoritative parental strategy. Their six children agree that their relationships with their fathers are good. Even though these fathers are strict, they are loving and therefore the children feel secure and confident. These children are able to form stable relationships outside the home. The fourth father is an abusive father whose relationship with his children is unhealthy. His children are not very secure and are withdrawn. They have very few friends because they are afraid of the repercussions from friends discovering they have problems with their father. This study is a door opener in an area with little documented research namely parenting strategies in Africa in general and fathering strategies in particular. There is a need to explore the field further in order to develop training and care-giving structures based on African parental voices. / Psychology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

This study aims at exploring how fathers' parenting strategies and the relationship they have with their children influences the children's ability to form other relationships outside the home. The study is based on parenting strategies identified by Diana Baumrind. Reviewed literature state that where a relationship between the father and his children is good, the children are more confident, stable and secure and therefore able to form seemingly stable social relationships. Where the relationship between father and his children is unhealthy, the children may be unsure of themselves and find it harder to form relationship outside the home. The parenting strategy resulting in the best relationships between the father and his children is the authoritative parenting strategy. Authoritative fathers set rules and follow them through while allowing dialogue. They encourage the development of self-identity and are lovingly involved in their children's lives. All participating fathers in this study have a son and daughter in the age range 13 to 25 years and all are able to communicate in English. The four participating fathers are from different ethnic groups, religious faith and professions. For each father interviewed, a son and a daughter were interviewed too. The same father parenting strategies identified in the literature were identified in this study. Three fathers fit the description of the authoritative parental strategy. Their six children agree that their relationships with their fathers are good. Even though these fathers are strict, they are loving and therefore the children feel secure and confident. These children are able to form stable relationships outside the home. The fourth father is an abusive father whose relationship with his children is unhealthy. His children are not very secure and are withdrawn. They have very few friends because they are afraid of the repercussions from friends discovering they have problems with their father. This study is a door opener in an area with little documented research namely parenting strategies in Africa in general and fathering strategies in particular. There is a need to explore the field further in order to develop training and care-giving structures based on African parental voices. / Psychology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)