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Although there are strong opinions both for and against identifying exceptional children, it is important school divisions as well as schools ensure that student sub groups are not overrepresented in special education. The purpose of this study was to determine the representation of students in special education by category (SWD, ED, SLD, and ID) and by demographic identifier (Ethnicity, Gender, SES) for 2008-2009 and to determine changes in representation between 2008-2009 and 2013-2014 in the 132 school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The 2013-2014 data reported in the Casey (2017) study were used in this study. In addition, this study examined specific disability categories by race, gender, and socioeconomic status from all 132 Virginia public school divisions and compared data from 2008-2009 to data from 2013-2014. Data for the study were retrieved from the Virginia Department of Education (VDOE) related to specific categories. Findings included a comparison of the data for 2008-2009 and 2013-2014. In 2008-2009 some data were missing, which may have contributed to the limited findings. Overrepresentation was determined through the use of the standard 10 formula for overrepresentation. Findings for 2008-2009 revealed that Black students were identified as over represented in the area of Intellectual Disabilities (ID) in 2% of the school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In the school year 2008-2009, 0% of school divisions identified Hispanic students as disproportionate in the areas of ID, Students with Disabilities (SWD), Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD), and Emotionally Disturbed (ED). In the 2008-2009 school year, 2% of the school divisions in Virginia identified economically disadvantaged students as disproportionate in the disability category SWD, and 20% of the school divisions identified economically disadvantaged students as disproportionate in the disability category SLD. Additionally, 17% of the school divisions identified economically disadvantaged students as disproportionate in the disability category ED, and 38% percent of the school divisions in Virginia identified economically disadvantaged students as disproportionate in the disability category ID. The 2008-2009 data, when compared to the 2013-2014 data, were less disproportionate. / EDD / The accurate identification of students for special education is necessary both for school divisions and for students. Thus, it is important that school divisions as well as schools ensure student sub groups are not overrepresented in special education. The purpose of this study was to determine representation of students in special education by category (SWD, ED, SLD, and ID) and by demographic variables (Ethnicity, Gender, SES) for 2008-2009, and to determine changes in representation between 2008-2009 and 2013-2014 in the 132 school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The study utilized 2013-2014 data reported in the Casey (2017) study. Data from the Virginia Department of Education (VDOE) were used for the study. Analysis of the data revealed less disproportionate representation in each of the groups examined in 2008-2009 when compared to the data reported by Casey (2017). In 2008-2009 some data were missing, which may have contributed to a lack of over representation in several areas. While Blacks were overidentifed in ID in a few divisions in 2008-2009, Economically disadvantaged students were overidentified in a larger number of school divisions in SLD, ED, and ID. However, the 2008-2009 data, when compared to the 2013-2014 data, indicated less disproportionality.

For more than three decades, research has shown that the special education referral, identification, and placement processes can be discriminatory (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, and Higareda, 2005). Proportionately, there are more minority students of low socio-economic status than are White students in special education categories that are the high incidence special education categories. Students with high-incidence disabilities make up 80% of all students with disabilities. High-Incidence disabilities share these characteristics, (1) often hard to distinguish from students without disabilities, especially in non-school settings, (2) often display a combination of academic, and (3) behavioral and social problems (Friend and Bursuck, 2012). Special Education licensure and endorsement varies from state to state, as does the terminology used in describing the knowledge that is required and the students to whom it applies. In most states students identified for special education services for the categories of Intellectual Disability (ID), Specific Learning Disability (SLD) and students with Emotional Disturbance (ED) are identified as high- incidence disabilities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the status of relative representation of male and female, minority, and low socioeconomic students with disabilities served in special education programs across 132 public school divisions within eight Superintendent']s regions in the 2013-14 school year, as published by the Virginia Department of Education. Data from the Virginia Department Education (VDOE) were analyzed to present an analysis of three categories of the special education populations (ID, SLD and ED), racial, (Black and Hispanic) and socio-economic status. Findings indicated that fewer than 50% of the school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia showed disproportionality, however when examined by Superintendent's regions there were some geographical areas that showed some concentrations of disproportionality. / Ed. D. / For more than three decades, research has shown that the special education referral, identification, and placement processes can be discriminatory (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, & Higareda, 2005). Proportionately, there are more minority students of low socio-economic status than are White students in special education categories that are the high incidence special education categories. Students with high-incidence disabilities make up 80% of all students with disabilities. High-Incidence disabilities share these characteristics, (1) often hard to distinguish from students without disabilities, especially in non-school settings, (2) often display a combination of academic, and (3) behavioral and social problems (Friend & Bursuck, 2012). Special Education licensure and endorsement varies from state to state, as does the terminology used in describing the knowledge that is required and the students to whom it applies. In most states students identified for special education services for the categories of Intellectual Disability (ID), Specific Learning Disability (SLD) and students with Emotional Disturbance (ED) are identified as high- incidence disabilities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the status of relative representation of male and female, minority, and low socioeconomic students with disabilities served in special education programs across 132 public school divisions within eight Superintendent’s regions in the 2013-14 school year, as published by the Virginia Department of Education. Data from the Virginia Department Education (VDOE) were analyzed to present an analysis of three categories of the special education populations (ID, SLD and ED), racial, (Black and Hispanic) and socioeconomic status. Findings indicated that fewer than 50% of the school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia showed disproportionality, however when examined by Superintendent’s regions there were some geographical areas that showed some concentrations of disproportionality.

Nesta tese, foi desenvolvida uma investigação, utilizando, principalmente, atividades digitais relacionadas com a aprendizagem dos conceitos de proporcionalidade. A base para analisar as construções conceituais dos alunos é a Teoria dos Campos Conceituais, de Gerard Vergnaud. Esta teoria é considerada cognitivista e busca compreender os processos de conceitualização, situando e estudando as filiações e rupturas entre conhecimentos do ponto de vista de seu conteúdo conceitual. Além disso, esta teoria trabalha com a noção de conhecimento a partir das habilidades e informações expressas pelas crianças e adolescentes. Para garantir uma maior abrangência de situações envolvendo o campo conceitual das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade, selecionou-se os softwares Régua e Compasso, planilha eletrônica, geoplano, dois objetos de aprendizagem criados pelo grupo de pesquisa RIVED/UNIFRA, um vídeo “Matemática na Vida: Razão e Proporção”, do portal Domínio Público e objetos materiais como maquetes, molas, moedas, folhas de papel. Para o acompanhamento das aulas e permitir a socialização e a interação por meio de comentários, foi criado um Blog no Wordpress. A metodologia escolhida foi a Engenharia Didática, que valoriza as relações de dependência entre a dimensão teórica e a prática da pesquisa. Os sujeitos da pesquisa foram alunos da oitava série de uma escola municipal, situada na zona rural do município de Silveira Martins, RS. Os resultados demonstram potenciais contribuições das atividades digitais para o desenvolvimento das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade. Verificou-se que as duplas de alunos conseguiram maior coerência no uso de modelos explicativos em diferentes situações, interpretando as situações e resolvendo-as de forma a explicitar seus conhecimentos, utilizando a linguagem natural ou simbólica e estabelecendo relações com as novas situações a vencer. Nesse sentido, os teoremas em ação e os conceitos em ação se tornaram mais claros, atingindo um novo patamar, em que os conceitos espontâneos evoluíram para conceitos científicos. Há de se destacar que o professor tem um papel importante no planejamento, na escolha das atividades e no nível de profundidade abordado, devendo levar em conta o desenvolvimento cognitivo dos sujeitos, pois isto é um fator que poderá motivar ou não o aluno a “aprender a aprender”, ou seja, a querer ser o autor do seu próprio processo de construção de conhecimento. / In this thesis, it was developed a research, using mainly digital activities related to learning the concepts of proportionality. The basis for analyzing the conceptual constructions of the students is the Theory of Conceptual Fields, Gerard Vergnaud. This theory is considered cognitive and seeks to understand the processes of conceptualization, standing and studying the breaks between affiliations and knowledge in terms of its conceptual content. Moreover, this theory works with the notion of knowledge from the skills and information expressed by children and teenagers. To ensure a wider range of situations involving such concepts of mul-tiplicative structures and proportionality, we selected the software ruler and compass, spread-sheet, geoplano, two learning objects created by the research group RIVED / UNIFRA, a video "MATEMÁTICA NA VIDA: RAZÃO E PROPORÇÃO", Domínio Público gateway material objects as models, springs, coins, pieces of paper. In monitoring the lessons and allow socialization and interaction through comments, it was created a blog on Wordpress. The method chosen was the Engineering Curriculum, which values the relations of dependence between the size of the theoretical and practical research. The subjects of the research were eighth graders students in a school hall, located in the rural area of Silveira Martins, RS. The results demonstrate the potential contributions of digital activities for the development of multiplicative structures and proportionality. It was found that pairs of students achieved greater consistency in the use of explanatory models in different situations. In this way, the theorems in action and the concepts in action became clearer, reaching a new level, where the spontaneous concepts to evolved to scientific concepts, getting interpret situations and resolve them in order to clarify their knowledge, using the natural or symbolic language and establishing relationships with new situations to win. It must be noted that the teacher has an important role in planning, choice of activities and level of depth addressed, should take into account the cognitive development of individuals, as this is one factor that may or may not motivate stu-dents to learn to learn, in other words, wanting to be the author of their own process of knowledge construction.

Nesta tese, foi desenvolvida uma investigação, utilizando, principalmente, atividades digitais relacionadas com a aprendizagem dos conceitos de proporcionalidade. A base para analisar as construções conceituais dos alunos é a Teoria dos Campos Conceituais, de Gerard Vergnaud. Esta teoria é considerada cognitivista e busca compreender os processos de conceitualização, situando e estudando as filiações e rupturas entre conhecimentos do ponto de vista de seu conteúdo conceitual. Além disso, esta teoria trabalha com a noção de conhecimento a partir das habilidades e informações expressas pelas crianças e adolescentes. Para garantir uma maior abrangência de situações envolvendo o campo conceitual das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade, selecionou-se os softwares Régua e Compasso, planilha eletrônica, geoplano, dois objetos de aprendizagem criados pelo grupo de pesquisa RIVED/UNIFRA, um vídeo “Matemática na Vida: Razão e Proporção”, do portal Domínio Público e objetos materiais como maquetes, molas, moedas, folhas de papel. Para o acompanhamento das aulas e permitir a socialização e a interação por meio de comentários, foi criado um Blog no Wordpress. A metodologia escolhida foi a Engenharia Didática, que valoriza as relações de dependência entre a dimensão teórica e a prática da pesquisa. Os sujeitos da pesquisa foram alunos da oitava série de uma escola municipal, situada na zona rural do município de Silveira Martins, RS. Os resultados demonstram potenciais contribuições das atividades digitais para o desenvolvimento das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade. Verificou-se que as duplas de alunos conseguiram maior coerência no uso de modelos explicativos em diferentes situações, interpretando as situações e resolvendo-as de forma a explicitar seus conhecimentos, utilizando a linguagem natural ou simbólica e estabelecendo relações com as novas situações a vencer. Nesse sentido, os teoremas em ação e os conceitos em ação se tornaram mais claros, atingindo um novo patamar, em que os conceitos espontâneos evoluíram para conceitos científicos. Há de se destacar que o professor tem um papel importante no planejamento, na escolha das atividades e no nível de profundidade abordado, devendo levar em conta o desenvolvimento cognitivo dos sujeitos, pois isto é um fator que poderá motivar ou não o aluno a “aprender a aprender”, ou seja, a querer ser o autor do seu próprio processo de construção de conhecimento. / In this thesis, it was developed a research, using mainly digital activities related to learning the concepts of proportionality. The basis for analyzing the conceptual constructions of the students is the Theory of Conceptual Fields, Gerard Vergnaud. This theory is considered cognitive and seeks to understand the processes of conceptualization, standing and studying the breaks between affiliations and knowledge in terms of its conceptual content. Moreover, this theory works with the notion of knowledge from the skills and information expressed by children and teenagers. To ensure a wider range of situations involving such concepts of mul-tiplicative structures and proportionality, we selected the software ruler and compass, spread-sheet, geoplano, two learning objects created by the research group RIVED / UNIFRA, a video "MATEMÁTICA NA VIDA: RAZÃO E PROPORÇÃO", Domínio Público gateway material objects as models, springs, coins, pieces of paper. In monitoring the lessons and allow socialization and interaction through comments, it was created a blog on Wordpress. The method chosen was the Engineering Curriculum, which values the relations of dependence between the size of the theoretical and practical research. The subjects of the research were eighth graders students in a school hall, located in the rural area of Silveira Martins, RS. The results demonstrate the potential contributions of digital activities for the development of multiplicative structures and proportionality. It was found that pairs of students achieved greater consistency in the use of explanatory models in different situations. In this way, the theorems in action and the concepts in action became clearer, reaching a new level, where the spontaneous concepts to evolved to scientific concepts, getting interpret situations and resolve them in order to clarify their knowledge, using the natural or symbolic language and establishing relationships with new situations to win. It must be noted that the teacher has an important role in planning, choice of activities and level of depth addressed, should take into account the cognitive development of individuals, as this is one factor that may or may not motivate stu-dents to learn to learn, in other words, wanting to be the author of their own process of knowledge construction.

Nesta tese, foi desenvolvida uma investigação, utilizando, principalmente, atividades digitais relacionadas com a aprendizagem dos conceitos de proporcionalidade. A base para analisar as construções conceituais dos alunos é a Teoria dos Campos Conceituais, de Gerard Vergnaud. Esta teoria é considerada cognitivista e busca compreender os processos de conceitualização, situando e estudando as filiações e rupturas entre conhecimentos do ponto de vista de seu conteúdo conceitual. Além disso, esta teoria trabalha com a noção de conhecimento a partir das habilidades e informações expressas pelas crianças e adolescentes. Para garantir uma maior abrangência de situações envolvendo o campo conceitual das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade, selecionou-se os softwares Régua e Compasso, planilha eletrônica, geoplano, dois objetos de aprendizagem criados pelo grupo de pesquisa RIVED/UNIFRA, um vídeo “Matemática na Vida: Razão e Proporção”, do portal Domínio Público e objetos materiais como maquetes, molas, moedas, folhas de papel. Para o acompanhamento das aulas e permitir a socialização e a interação por meio de comentários, foi criado um Blog no Wordpress. A metodologia escolhida foi a Engenharia Didática, que valoriza as relações de dependência entre a dimensão teórica e a prática da pesquisa. Os sujeitos da pesquisa foram alunos da oitava série de uma escola municipal, situada na zona rural do município de Silveira Martins, RS. Os resultados demonstram potenciais contribuições das atividades digitais para o desenvolvimento das estruturas multiplicativas e da proporcionalidade. Verificou-se que as duplas de alunos conseguiram maior coerência no uso de modelos explicativos em diferentes situações, interpretando as situações e resolvendo-as de forma a explicitar seus conhecimentos, utilizando a linguagem natural ou simbólica e estabelecendo relações com as novas situações a vencer. Nesse sentido, os teoremas em ação e os conceitos em ação se tornaram mais claros, atingindo um novo patamar, em que os conceitos espontâneos evoluíram para conceitos científicos. Há de se destacar que o professor tem um papel importante no planejamento, na escolha das atividades e no nível de profundidade abordado, devendo levar em conta o desenvolvimento cognitivo dos sujeitos, pois isto é um fator que poderá motivar ou não o aluno a “aprender a aprender”, ou seja, a querer ser o autor do seu próprio processo de construção de conhecimento. / In this thesis, it was developed a research, using mainly digital activities related to learning the concepts of proportionality. The basis for analyzing the conceptual constructions of the students is the Theory of Conceptual Fields, Gerard Vergnaud. This theory is considered cognitive and seeks to understand the processes of conceptualization, standing and studying the breaks between affiliations and knowledge in terms of its conceptual content. Moreover, this theory works with the notion of knowledge from the skills and information expressed by children and teenagers. To ensure a wider range of situations involving such concepts of mul-tiplicative structures and proportionality, we selected the software ruler and compass, spread-sheet, geoplano, two learning objects created by the research group RIVED / UNIFRA, a video "MATEMÁTICA NA VIDA: RAZÃO E PROPORÇÃO", Domínio Público gateway material objects as models, springs, coins, pieces of paper. In monitoring the lessons and allow socialization and interaction through comments, it was created a blog on Wordpress. The method chosen was the Engineering Curriculum, which values the relations of dependence between the size of the theoretical and practical research. The subjects of the research were eighth graders students in a school hall, located in the rural area of Silveira Martins, RS. The results demonstrate the potential contributions of digital activities for the development of multiplicative structures and proportionality. It was found that pairs of students achieved greater consistency in the use of explanatory models in different situations. In this way, the theorems in action and the concepts in action became clearer, reaching a new level, where the spontaneous concepts to evolved to scientific concepts, getting interpret situations and resolve them in order to clarify their knowledge, using the natural or symbolic language and establishing relationships with new situations to win. It must be noted that the teacher has an important role in planning, choice of activities and level of depth addressed, should take into account the cognitive development of individuals, as this is one factor that may or may not motivate stu-dents to learn to learn, in other words, wanting to be the author of their own process of knowledge construction.

在一般的民主國家，選舉乃是落實民主政治運作的制度安排。而選舉的結果不僅會影響政府政策的走向、政府的更迭，甚至是政黨制度的重組。因此，對於選舉制度的設計、制定、規劃與討論一直都是政治學中爭辯的議題。一般而言，選舉制度的討論包括選票轉換為議席的「比例性」與選舉制度對「政黨政治」的影響，而本文著重在對於前者的研究。 本文從「比例性」之於選舉制度的重要性切入，先針對足以影響選舉結果之比例性偏差的因素做一瞭解，並以台灣第六屆與第七屆立法委員選舉作為實證，利用各種方法（直接分析選舉數據、迴歸分析、本文選擇的比例性偏差測量公式），以尋求、說明、分析「政黨比例性偏差」與「選區規模」之間的相關性與影響力。 不論是直接觀察、整理選舉結果，或以統計分析來檢定關聯程度、相關方向及解釋力，或是利用Taagepera「n指數」計算我國第六屆與第七屆立法委員選舉的「比例性」，所得到的研究結果呼應了本文的研究假設，此即，選區規模、選區數越大，選舉結果的比例性越佳（不比例性越小）、政黨的比例性偏差越低。 雖然透過本文選舉結果的整理與觀察、Taagepera「n指數」的計算，都顯示出我國立委選制改革後，『單一選區』的採行，強化了選舉結果的「不比例性」，削弱了小黨的政治空間，扭曲了選民的偏好與委託；而具有『調節性議席』功能的『全國不分區席次』，無助於調和「區域選舉」的比例性偏差，且因5％的政黨門檻限制，非但無法改變小黨在區域選舉上的劣勢，反而加深了小黨整體的比例性偏差。但由於僅有一屆改制後的選舉數據資料可供分析，本文的研究結果能夠呈現的部分有限，待未來改制後更多屆的選舉數據來佐證、分析與檢驗，或許能得到較為明確、有力的結果分析。

When the United States Supreme Court approved the reinstatement of the death penalty in the United States in 1976, it did so based on the promise of new safeguards against comparative excessiveness and relative disproportionality resulting from jury sentencing in capital cases. As Justice Stevens noted in 2008, one of these safeguards – meaningful appellate review of death sentences – is, in practice, non-existent. This thesis examines the use of this purported safeguard by the Ohio Supreme Court, in the form of comparative proportionality review, to determine the degree to which Ohio capital cases are ‘relatively proportionate’ in the time period after the state adopted life without parole as a sentencing option in 1996. Specifically, this thesis employs two approaches to identifying ‘similar’ cases – the overall aggravation approach (through logistic regression analysis) and the fact specific approach – and then compares each death sentence to its group of ‘similar’ cases to determine whether it is relatively proportionate, given the death sentencing ratio of its comparable group. After establishing that at least forty per cent of Ohio cases were relatively disproportionate, the thesis argues that Ohio’s current approach violates the requirements of the Eighth Amendment. In particular, the Court’s failure to examine cases sentenced to life as part of its proportionality review and its use of the precedent-seeking approach has the outcome of ignoring death sentences that are comparatively excessive. Finally, the thesis concludes by offering a normative model by which Ohio can improve its administration of comparative proportionality review. The thesis advocates the use of a ‘purposive’ approach, defining ‘similarity’ on the basis of the intended purpose of punishment, and suggesting that just deserts retribution provides the best approach for determining ‘similarity’.

Goal of this thesis was to assess the constitutionality of "regulatory fees" in healthcare, which were enacted in the Czech Republic in 2007. The first chapter goes through the two decisions of the Czech Constitutional Court concerning assessment of the constitutionality of regulatory fees and identifies five main areas to study: 1)General methodology of human rights interpretation and their collisions in the Czech constitutional system, 2)Genesis and interpretation of social rights. 3)Identification of a test to assess collision between social rights and public goods 4)Essence of the right to free healthcare 5)Empirical assessment of the regulatory fees impact Second chapter is an overview of the first area divided into two sections: traditional methods of interpretation in constitutional law and development of the proportionality principle based on an overview of the Czech and foreign jurisprudence and the previous decisions of the Czech Constitutional Court. Third chapter describes the genesis of the social rights as a specific area of human rights. Implication from both chapters are combined to create a universal proportionality test that includes specific intensity of review for social rights. Fourth chapter provides a case study that firstly identifies the essence of the right to free healthcare,...

S'il est admis que le droit d'auteur est en crise, la doctrine est partagée sur la détermination des causes et de la nature de celle-ci. La présente thèse se propose de modéliser le droit d'auteur selon une approche systémique et substantielle. L'analyse de système permet d'en dégager les principaux caractères structurels et organisationnels, afin de comprendre les phénomènes qui le déstabilisent. La qualification du droit d'auteur en droit fondamental transforme inéluctablement la manière d'envisager les relations entre les normes juridiques du droit d'auteur et, au-delà, la manière de pondérer les différents droits et intérêts concernés par la création et l'exploitation des oeuvres de l'esprit. Cette modélisation révèle une défaillance d'effectivité de certaines normes juridiques du droit d'auteur et une incohérence axiologique entre ses objectifs substantiels et sa mise en oeuvre concrète : l'équilibre des intérêts, qui justifie l'existence du monopole, est rompu. Il existe de nombreuses solutions pour corriger la crise du droit d'auteur. Celles consistant à appréhender le droit d'auteur comme un système ouvert et à tirer toutes les conséquences de sa qualité de droit fondamental doivent être privilégiées. À titre principal, une réévaluation du périmètre et du statut juridique des limites et exceptions, et surtout l'application systématique par le juge d'un véritable contrôle de proportionnalité lorsque le droit de l'auteur ou l'une de ses exceptions sont atteints, pourraient redonner toute sa cohérence au droit d'auteur / The copyright crisis is a well-known topic ; however, legal doctrine disputes about its causes and nature. This thesis proposes a systemic and substantive approach of copyright. The systemic analysis allows to highlight its structural and organisational features and to understand the phenomenas which are serioulsy destabilizing it. The fundamental right qualification of copyright inevitably leads to transform the way legal standards must be articulated and, even further, the way all different interests concerned by creation and exploitation of intellectual works must be balanced. This modelling reveals a set of legal standards empirical validity failure and an axiological incoherence between its substantive aims and its practical implementation : balance of interests, which justifies granting a monopoly, is broken. This crisis can be dealt with several proposals. We have to prefer those which consider copyright as an open system and which draw all the consequences of its fundamental right nature. Mainly, the limit and exceptions legal status and perimeter revaluation, and more important, the systematic use of proportionality control by the judge when the right of the author or the rights of the public are infringed, could re-establish copyright its consistency. In fine, the objet of this thesis is to advocate an approach which links and does not separate the formal and substantive aspects of copyright and, more extensively, of legal systems