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Small water ice crystals are the main component of cold tropospheric clouds such as cirrus. Because these clouds cover large areas of our planet, their role in the radiation budget of incoming and outgoing radiation to the planet's surface is important. At present, the representation of these clouds in climate and weather models is subject to improvements: a large part of the uncertainty error stems from the lack of precise micro-physical and radiation model schemes for ice crystal clouds. To improve the cloud representations, a better understanding of the life time dynamics of the clouds and their composition is necessary, comprising a detailed understanding of the ice particle genesis, and development over their lifetime. It is especially important to understand how the development of ice crystals over time is linked to the changes in observable variables such as water vapour content and temperature and how they change the light scattering properties of the crystals. Recent remote and aircraft based in-situ measurements have shown that many ice particles show a light scattering behaviour typical for crystals having rough surfaces or being of complex geometrical shapes. The aim of this thesis was to develop the experimental setup and experiments to investigate this further by studying the surface morphology of small water ice crystals using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The experiments I developed study the growth of water ice crystals inside an SEM chamber under controlled environmental conditions. The influence of water vapour supersaturation, pressure and temperature is investigated. I demonstrate how to retrieve the surface topology from observed crystals for use as input to computational light scattering codes to derive light scattering phase functions and asymmetry parameters, which can be used as input into atmospheric models. Difficulties with the method for studying the growth of water ice crystals, such as the effect of the electron beam-gas ionization and charging effects, the problem of facilitating repeated and localized ice growth, and the effect of radiative influences on the crystal growth are discussed. A broad set of nucleation target materials is studied. In a conclusion, I demonstrate that the method is suitable to study the surface morphologies, but is experimentally very challenging and many precautions must be taken, such as imaging only once and preventing radiative heat exchange between the chamber walls and the crystals to avoid unwanted effects on the crystal morphology. It is also left as a question if a laboratory experiment, where crystals will need to be grown in connection to a substrate, can represent the real world well enough. Deriving the required light scattering data in-situ might be an alternative, easier way to collect data for modelling use.

L’étude du contact électrique quasi statique à plusieurs échelles permet de comprendre celui des micro-relais MEMS. Au cours de ce travail, une modélisation fine du contact est développée pour valider des lois de comportement établies à partir des mesures obtenues grâce à la mise au point de deux dispositifs expérimentaux originaux : la balance de précision, qui permet de réaliser un contact à l’échelle macroscopique entre barreaux croisés recouverts des films minces des matériaux à tester, et un nanoindenteur instrumenté pour la mesure électrique reproduisant un micro-contact identique à celui des micro-relais. Ils permettent tous deux de mener une étude comparative de différents échantillons en fonction de la force (de la dizaine de µN à quelques N), du courant (du µA à l’A), de l’état de surface (rugosité) ou encore du temps ; le contact étant caractérisé par sa résistance électrique. Ce travail concerne principalement le contact réalisé entre films minces en Au, matériau de contact de référence pour les applications micro-relais MEMS. L’étude des contacts de grande dimension a néanmoins été élargie à Ru, Rh, Pt et à l’alliage Au-Ni.Les résultats obtenus à l’aide de la balance de précision ont démontré la nécessité de prendre en compte l’influence de la configuration en film mince des matériaux de contact, tant du point de vue mécanique (rugosité) qu’électrique (répartition des lignes de courant). Leur comparaison à une modélisation statistique du contact rugueux donne des résultats satisfaisants. Cette approche a par ailleurs nécessité le développement d’un algorithme d’analyse d’image des relevés topographiques réalisés au microscope à force atomique, permettant ainsi de quantifier précisément les positions, taille et rayon de courbure de chaque aspérité de la surface.Les mesures effectuées à l’aide du nanoindenteur ont mis en évidence l’effet de la durée de fermeture des microcontacts sur la valeur de la résistance électrique. Le fluage des aspérités serait en partie responsable de la décroissance temporelle observée, aboutissant à des valeurs de résistance limite comparables à celles calculées à l’aide d'une modélisation numérique du contact entre des aspérités discrétisées et une sphère lisse. / The multi scale study of quasi static electrical contact is aimed at understanding those in MEMS microswitches. In this work, an accurate modeling of contact is developed to validate constitutive relations based on measurements obtained through the development of two original experimental set ups: a precision balance, which enables to perform a macroscopic contact between crossed roads coated with thin films of the materials to be tested, and a nanoindenter instrumented for electrical measurements reproducing microswitches contacts. They both allow a comparative study of different samples depending on the force (from μN to N), current (µA to A), surface condition (roughness) or time, while the contact is characterized through its electrical resistance. The measurements are obtained in the first place for gold, the reference contact material for MEMS microswitches applications. The study of large contacts was nevertheless extended to Ru, Rh, Pt and Au-Ni alloy.The results obtained using the precision balance showed the need to take into account the influence of the thin film configuration of contact materials, both in terms of mechanical (roughness) and electrical (distribution of current lines). Their comparison to a statistical model of rough contact gives satisfactory results. This approach also required the development of an image analysis algorithm of topographic maps obtained through atomic force microscopy. It allows quantifying precisely the position, height and radius of curvature of each surface asperity.Measurements made using the nanoindenter showed the effect of the time of closure of the micro contact on electrical resistance values. The creep of asperities may be partly responsible for the observed time decay, leading to limit resistance values comparable to those calculated using a numerical modeling of the contact between discretized asperities and a smooth sphere.

This work is concerned with stability and receptivity analysis as well as studies on control of the laminar-turbulent transition in boundary-layer flows through direct numerical simulations. Various flow configurations are considered to address flow around straight and swept wings. The aim of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of stability characteristics and different means of transition control of such flows which are of great interest in aeronautical applications. Acoustic receptivity of flow over a finite-thickness flat plate with elliptic leading edge is considered. The objective is to compute receptivity coefficient defined as the relative amplitude of acoustic disturbances and TS wave. The existing results in the literature for this flow case plot a scattered image and are inconclusive. We have approached this problem in both compressible and incompressible frameworks and used high-order numerical methods. Our results have shown that the generally-accepted level of acoustic receptivity coefficient for this flow case is one order of magnitude too high. The continuous increase of computational power has enabled us to perform global stability analysis of three-dimensional boundary layers. A swept flat plate of FSC type boundary layer with surface roughness is considered. The aim is to determine the critical roughness height for which the flow becomes turbulent. Global stability characteristics of this flow have been addressed and sensitivity of such analysis to domain size and numerical parameters have been discussed. The last flow configuration studied here is infinite swept-wing flow. Two numerical set ups are considered which conform to wind-tunnel experiments where passive control of crossflow instabilities is investigated. Robustness of distributed roughness elements in the presence of acoustic waves have been studied. Moreover, ring-type plasma actuators are employed as virtual roughness elements to delay laminar-turbulent transition. / <p>QC 20161124</p>

De nombreuses applications industrielles mettent en évidence l’importance des propriétés de mouillage des surfaces métalliques que ce soit directement pour les propriétés d’écoulement de fluides sur ces surfaces ou indirectement pour leur lien avec les phénomènes d’adhésion. Les travaux de Wenzel (1936) et de Cassie -Baxter (1944) ont montré que cette mouillabilité dépendait à la fois de la tension superficielle du solide mais aussi de sa topographie de surface. Ainsi la maîtrise et l’optimisation de ces propriétés nécessitent le contrôle de ces deux aspects, à l’image de la feuille de lotus dont le caractère super-hydrophobe réside à la fois en la présence d’une cire hydrophobe et d’une rugosité multi-échelle. Ces observations sont à l’origine, cette dernière décennie, du développement des techniques de gravures chimiques pour réaliser des texturations superficielles de matériaux et contrôler leur mouillabilité. Afin de surmonter certaines limitations de ces techniques et privilégier un procédé par voie sèche, nous avons envisagé de structurer la surface d’alliages métalliques de titane, d’aluminium, et de différents aciers inoxydables, au moyen d’un traitement de surface par laser femtoseconde. L’analyse topographique de la surface des matériaux (profilométrie optique, AFM, MEB) en fonction des paramètres d’irradiation du laser comme la densité de puissance laser, le nombre d’impulsions et le décalage latéral du faisceau en configuration balayage, a montré l’efficacité de ce procédé pour générer des texturations multi-échelles. Les différentes morphologies de textures peuvent être associées à des transitions de régimes dans l’interaction laser - matière (ripples, spikes, …). L’analyse chimique et structurale (DRX, XPS) des surfaces traitées a mis en évidence des modifications microstructurales dues aux effets thermiques du laser ainsi qu’une évolution de l’état chimique de la surface dont les effets sur la mouillabilité sont importants. L’hydrophobie des surfaces métalliques a été considérablement accentuée par le traitement laser. Ces résultats pourront être exploités pour différentes applications industrielles notamment comme moyen de contrôler l’état de surface des moules de plasturgie. / Many industrial applications highlight the importance of the wetting properties of metallic surfaces related to their adhesion phenomena. Wenzel’s (1936) and Cassie – Baxter’s (1944) independent works showed that the wettability depended on both the surface tension of the solid but also on its surface topography. Thus the control and optimization of these properties require control of both aspects, like the lotus leaf whose superhydrophobic character lies in the presence of a hydrophobic wax and a multi-scale roughness. These observations are at the origin of the development of chemical etching techniques to produce surface texturing of materials and control their wettability. To overcome some limitations of these techniques and focus on a dry process, we considered the surface texturing of metal alloys of titanium, aluminum, and various stainless steels, using a femtosecond laser surface treatment. The analysis of the topography of the textured surfaces using different techniques (optical profilometry, AFM, SEM) showed the effectiveness of this method for generating multi-scale texturing. The different morphologies of textures can be associated with regimes transitions in the laser - matter interaction (ripples,spikes ...). The chemical and structural analysis (XRD, XPS) of the treated surfaces revealed microstructural changes due to thermal effects of laser, and a shift in the chemical state of the surface whose effects on the wettability are important. The hydrophobicity of metallic surfaces was significantly enhanced by laser treatment. These results may be used for various industrial applications, including the control of the surface state of plastic molds.

Atmospheric plasma sprayed (APS) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are commonly used for thermal protection of components in modern gas turbine application such as power generation, marine and aero engines. TBC is a duplex material system consisting of an insulating ceramic topcoat layer and an intermetallic bondcoat layer. TBC microstructures are highly heterogeneous, consisting of defects such as pores and cracks of different sizes which determine the coating's final thermal and mechanical properties, and the service lives of the coatings. Failure in APS TBCs is mainly associated with the thermo-mechanical stresses developing due to the thermally grown oxide (TGO) layer growth at the topcoat-bondcoat interface and thermal expansion mismatch during thermal cycling. The interface roughness has been shown to play a major role in the development of these induced stresses and lifetime of TBCs.The objective of this thesis work was two-fold for one purpose: to design an optimised TBC to be used for next generation gas turbines. The first objective was to investigate the relationships between coating microstructure and thermal-mechanical properties of topcoats, and to utilise these relationships to design an optimised morphology of the topcoat microstructure. The second objective was to investigate the relationships between topcoat-bondcoat interface roughness, TGO growth and lifetime of TBCs, and to utilise these relationships to design an optimal interface. Simulation technique was used to achieve these objectives. Important microstructural parameters influencing the performance of topcoats were identified and coatings with the feasible identified microstructural parameters were designed, modelled and experimentally verified. It was shown that large globular pores with connected cracks inherited within the topcoat microstructure significantly enhanced TBC performance. Real topcoat-bondcoat interface topographies were used to calculate the induced stresses and a diffusion based TGO growth model was developed to assess the lifetime. The modelling results were compared with existing theories published in previous works and experiments. It was shown that the modelling approach developed in this work could be used as a powerful tool to design new coatings and interfaces as well as to achieve high performance optimised morphologies.

Este estudo avaliou propriedades de fratura e seus parâmetros de superfície em composições de pasta de cimento de mesma porosidade capilar, variando o teor de filler calcário como substituinte ao cimento comercial. Ainda, para avaliação do efeito em composições de argamassa, foi avaliada a capacidade de redução de água que essa adição pode proporcionar e seu efeito na resistência mecânica. A avaliação dos parâmetros de fratura ocorreu por ensaio de flexão por carregamento em três pontos, com controle por taxa de deslocamento e as análises de superfície por ensaio de interferometria, em seções de fratura e entalhe. O aumento do teor de filler calcário proporcionou redução da demanda de água nas argamassas, para mesmo comportamento. A redução da demanda foi ainda maior para as composições dispersas com aditivo, em relação à referência com aditivo. As resistências à compressão das argamassas apresentaram boa correlação em relação ao ajuste com todas as composições, enquanto foi observado que argamassas de médio teor de filler podem apresentar mesma resistência à flexão que as argamassas de referência, mesmo que estas apresentem menor porosidade capilar. As pastas ensaiadas à flexão por carregamento três pontos não apresentaram comportamento quase-frágil, impedindo o cálculo da energia de fraturamento. Isto ocorreu devido ao método de ensaio adotado, com configuração inadequada, e que pode ser ajustada através da redução da taxa de deslocamento do ensaio, da geometria dos corpos de prova ou da geometria dos entalhes produzidos. Todas as composições apresentaram insensibilidade à profundidade de entalhe sob as condições de ensaio adotadas, possivelmente devido às falhas de configuração do método. As médias de resistência à flexão e do fator de intensidade de tensão crítico foram maiores para a composição de alto teor de filler, seguidos da referência e da composição de médio teor de filler, respectivamente. Em todas as análises e tipos de superfície estudadas, as composições de alto teor de filler apresentaram maior índice de rugosidade e amplitude entre picos e vales, enquanto não foi identificada diferença entre a referência e a composição de médio teor de filler. Estes dois parâmetros e a raiz quadrática da rugosidade indicaram que a rugosidade das superfícies fraturadas é maior que em superfícies cortadas com disco diamantado. / This study assesses fracture properties and their surface parameters in cement paste compositions of the same capillary porosity, varying the filler content of limestone as a substitute for commercial cement. Also, to evaluate the effect in mortar compositions, the water reduction capacity that this addition can provide and its effect on the mechanical resistance was evaluated. The evaluation of the fracture parameters was performed by three-point loading flexion test with displacement rate control and surface analysis by interferometry test in fracture and notch sections. The increase of limestone filler provided a reduction of the water demand in the mortars, in relation to the reference, for spreading of 265mm in table of consistency. The water demand reduction was even greater for compositions dispersed with admixture, relative to the reference with admixture. The compressive strength of the mortars presented a good correlation in the fit with all the compositions, while it was observed that mortars of medium filler content may have the same flexural strength as the reference mortars, even if they have lower capillary porosity. The pastes tested by three-point loading did not exhibit quasi-fragile behavior, preventing the calculation of fracturing energy. This was due to the inadequately configured test method adopted, which can be adjusted by reducing the test displacement rate, the geometry of the specimens or the geometry of the notches produced. All compositions presented insensitivity to the notch depth under the test conditions adopted, possibly due to method configuration failures. The averages of flexural strength and critical stress intensity factor were higher for the high filler composition, followed by the reference and medium filler composition, respectively. In all analyzes and surface types studied, high filler compositions presented higher roughness and amplitude index between peaks and valleys, while no difference between the reference and medium filler composition was identified. These two parameters and the quadratic root roughness indicated that the roughness of the fractured surfaces is greater than on surfaces cut with diamond disc.

A eficiência dos sistemas mecânicos é influenciada diretamente pelo coeficiente de atrito local, sendo este relacionado com os regimes de lubrificação. O coeficiente de atrito pode ser estudado usando o método de elementos finitos (MEF) com a finalidade de substituir ensaios experimentais e reduzir tempo de análise. Esta dissertação teve como objetivo desenvolver uma metodologia para avaliar o coeficiente de atrito em um par tribológico e seu efeito na eficiência por simulação numérica. Para esta modelagem foi definido um sistema composto por um par de engrenagens helicoidais. Em uma primeira análise, foi empregado o programa AVL Excite Power Unit, que utiliza a ferramenta MBD (Multi-Body Dynamic - Dinâmica de Multi-Corpos), possibilitando a simulação da transmissão com seus principais elementos em um modelo 1D, que leva em consideração a teoria da lubrificação elastohidrodinâmica (EHL). Também foi utilizado o programa Abaqus®, da Dassault Systèmes, para a criação de um modelo 3D, que considera o par engrenado e sendo necessário o desenvolvimento de uma subrotina para a aplicação do modelo de lubrificação da literatura. Em todas as simulações foram considerados condições de operação de um banco de provas e três diferentes acabamentos superficiais dos dentes das engrenagens em função do processo de fabricação: fresamento, retificação e polimento. Além da rugosidade, avaliou-se o efeito da velocidade angular nas perdas do sistema. O modelo 3D foi comparado com o modelo 1D e com resultados de eficiência de ensaios de banco de prova. O modelo 3D permitiu avaliar o coeficiente de atrito local na linha de contato do dente engrenado. Maiores velocidades angulares aumentaram a espessura de específica de filme, diminuindo assim o coeficiente de atrito e promovendo uma melhoria na eficiência do sistema. Os menores valores de coeficiente de atrito estão na região do diâmetro primitivo, onde o SRR é nulo. A velocidade angular influenciou mais do que a rugosidade. As análises dos modelos 1D e 3D indicaram que o modelo 1D superestima a eficiência da transmissão, enquanto que o modelo 3D apresentou resultados compatíveis com o banco de provas. / The efficiency of mechanical systems is influenced directly by the local friction coefficient, which is related to the lubrication regimes. The coefficient of friction can be studied using the finite element method (FEM) to replace experimental tests and reduce analysis time. This dissertation had the objective to develop a methodology to evaluate the coefficient of friction in a tribological pair and the effect on the efficiency by numerical simulation. In this model, a system composed of a pair of helical gears was defined. In a first analysis, the AVL Excite Power Unit software was used, which uses the tool MBD (Multi-Body Dynamic), enabling the simulation of the transmission with the main elements in a 1D model, which takes into account the theory of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL). The Abaqus® software was used to create a 3D model, which considers the pair of helical gear and a developed subroutine for application of the literature lubrication model. In all simulations, the conditions of operation of a rig tests and three different surface finishes of the gear teeth were considered, depending on the manufacturing process: milling, grinding and polishing. Besides the roughness, the effect of angular velocity on the losses of the system was evaluated. The 3D model was compared with the 1D model and with the results of rig tests efficiency. The 3D model allowed to evaluate the coefficient of local friction in the contact line of the tooth. Higher angular velocities increased the film specific thickness, thus reducing the coefficient of friction and promoting an improvement in the efficiency of the system. The lowest values of coefficient of friction are in the region of the primitive diameter, there the SRR is zero. The angular velocity influenced more than the roughness. The analyzes of the 1D and 3D models indicated that the 1D model overestimates the transmission efficiency, while the 3D model presented results compatible with the rig tests.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser la résistance thermique de contact au niveau de deux interfaces bien distinctes. La première est une interface physique entre le Silicium(111) et l'Hélium-4 superfluide. La résistance thermique de contact est alors mesurée expérimentalement pour des températures allant 0.3K à 2.0K et en variant la pression depuis la pression de vapeur saturante jusqu'à la pression de solidification de l'Hélium-4 (i.e. 25bars). L'analyse des résultats expérimentaux par le modèle d'Adamenko et Fuks montre la prédominance de la nano-rugosité de surface dans la transmission de la chaleur à l'interface entre ces deux matériaux. Lors de la solidification de l'Hélium-4, une transition du premier ordre dans la résistance thermique est mise en évidence. La deuxième interface étudiée est une forte constriction créée par une jonction de taille micrométrique entre deux membranes suspendues. Sans discontinuité de matériaux, les simulations numériques Monte-Carlo montrent la présence d'une résistance thermique de contact entre la membrane et l'entrée de la jonction dans le régime de diffusion des phonons les parois du système. Les simulations permettent alors d'explorer les effets des dimensions de la jonction ainsi que de la rugosité de surface des micro-structures bidimensionnelles et tridimensionnelles. / This thesis aims at characterizing the thermal contact resistance at two interfaces of different nature. The first is a physical interface between Silicon(111) and superfluid Helium-4. The thermal contact resistance is evaluated experimentally for temperatures between 0.3K and 2.0K while varying pressure from the saturated vapor pressure to the Helium-4 solidification pressure (i.e. 25bars). Experimental results, analysed with Adamenko and Fuks model, show that nanoscale surface roughness governs heat transmission at this interface. Furthermore, a first order transition in the thermal contact resistance is revealed due to Helium-4 solidification. The second studied interface is an abrupt constriction created by a micro-junction between two suspended membranes. Even though there is no material discontinuity, Monte-Carlo numerical simulations show the existence of a thermal contact resistance between the membrane and the entrance of the junction. Using simulations we explore the effects of geometry and nanoscale surface roughness in bidimensional and tridimensional micro-structure.

Le laminage à chaud de l’acier inoxydable est une étape du procédé de fabrication agissant significativement sur la qualité de surface des produits. Les nuances ferritiques stabilisées sont largement utilisées dans les applications automobiles et de décoration mais sont concernées par le phénomène de collage à chaud. Ces nuances, ayant des résistances élevées en corrosion sèche et en fluage, sont riches en éléments tels que le Cr, le Nb ou le Ti, limitant aussi l’oxydation des brames lors du laminage. Or, l’oxydation maitrisée de la brame permet de protéger la surface du métal de tout contact direct avec les cylindres de laminage.Afin de comprendre l’initiation du collage, une première campagne d’étude sur la topographie et la dégradation de l’état de surface des cylindres a été réalisée. Il a été mis en évidence que l’initiation du collage ne serait pas du à des rayures d’usure en surface des cylindres et dont la profondeur serait supérieure à la couche d’oxyde, car la probabilité que la profondeur d’une rayure de cylindre soit plus importante que la couche d’oxyde est très faible.Ensuite, un banc d’essai reproduisant les conditions tribologiques de l’emprise du laminoir a été conçu afin de mieux appréhender les mécanismes à l’origine du collage. Etant donné l’importance de l’état de surface des brames et des cylindres, ce banc d’essai a permis de travailler sur des échantillons pris en production, permettant d’étudier la surface oxydée des tôles. Cette deuxième campagne d’étude a mis en évidence l’importance des oxydes de silicium sur l’adhérence partielle de la couche d’oxyde, ainsi que la relative hétérogénéité en épaisseur et en composition chimique. / Hot rolling of stainless steel is one of the most important steps in manufacturing process regarding surface quality of the product. Stabilised ferritic stainless steels are widely used in automotive and cosmetic appliances but are also concerned by sticking phenomenon. These grades, having high dry corrosion and creep resistance, are enriched in specific chemical elements such as Cr, Nb or Ti, limiting also slab oxidation during hot rolling. Nevertheless, the mastered oxidation of slab surface is a way to protect metal surface from direct contact with rolls.In order to better understand initiation of sticking, a first campaign was based on topography and rolls surface state wear analysis. This study revealed that sticking initiation is not due to the presence of roll scratches which depth is higher than oxide layer thickness. Indeed, the probability that roll scratches are deeper than oxide layer thickness is very low.In a second time, a pilot was designed, reproducing tribological conditions of a roll bite, to better understand mechanisms that initiate sticking. Keeping in mind the importance of rolls and slab surface state, this pilot is able to use specimen taking from industrial products, having the original oxide layer surface. This second study highlighted the major role of silicium oxides on scale adherence and the high heterogeneity of this scale layer in thickness and in chemical composition.