Intervention trials that reduce visual impairment in older adults have not produced the expected improvements in reducing falls rate. We hypothesised that this may be caused by adaptation problems in older adults due to changes in magnification provided by new spectacles and cataract surgery. This study assessed the effects of ocular magnification on adaptive gait in young and older adults. Methods: Adaptive gait was measured in 10 young (mean age 22.3 ± 4.6 years) and 10 older adults (mean age 74.2 ± 4.3 years) with the participants' habitual refractive correction (0%) and with size lenses producing ocular magnification of ±1%, ±2%, ±3%, and ±5%. Adaptive gait parameters were measured when participants approached and stepped up onto a raised surface. Results: Adaptive gait changes in the young and older age groups were similar. Increasing amounts of magnification (+1% to +5%) led to an increased distance of the feet from the raised surface, increased vertical toe clearance and reduced distance of the lead heel position on the raised surface (p < 0.0001). Increasing amounts of minification (¿1% to ¿5%) led to the opposite of these changes (p < 0.0001). Adaptation to ocular magnification did not occur in the short term in young or older adults. Conclusion: The observed adaptive gait changes were driven by the magnification changes provided by the size lenses. The raised surface appeared closer and larger with magnification and further away and smaller with minification and gait was adjusted accordingly. Magnification may explain the mobility problems some older adults have with updated spectacles and after cataract surgery.

This study compared simulated sales negotiations with authentic negotiations. Specifically, three areas of language were considered: (i) chat phases, (ii) mitigation in disagreements, and (iii) argumentation. Findings indicated that greatly reduced use of chat phases in the simulations led to an impoverishment of the interactional aspect of communication. A statistical analysis indicated that mitigation of disagreements was significantly reduced when compared to authentic negotiations. Finally, in spite of the difference noted between professional and non-professional negotiators in the simulated negotiations, a significant increase in the use of argumentation was found in the simulations. Even though further research would be required, it could be hypothesized that these differences may be attributed to the one-off nature of simulations, the absence of a surrounding business context and the intrinsic difficulty of using interactional language in simulations. These factors should be considered when simulations are used and designed for business and LSP training courses. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Linguistics)

The system of Alternative Dispute Resolution, commonly known as ADR, comprises multiple informal processes. Traditional processes of negotiation, mediation and arbitration are primary processes within the system of ADR. The elements of the primary processes have been combined with one another or with those of public process to form hybrid ADR processes original only to the system of ADR. These hybrid processes are: rent-a-judge, the mini-trial, the summary jury trial, neutral evaluation and mediation/arbitration. Under the auspices of ADR, derivative processes have also been developed, such as expedited arbitration, documents-only arbitration, final-offer arbitration and quality arbitration. Each process is distinct and separate, having its own unique form, function and method of transforming a dispute. Outwardly, this represents a diverse collection of disjunctive processes. Yet an introspective analysis shows that there is an innate centrality that originates in core principles that bind individual processes to each other and to a unified body of theory. These foundational principles of ADR are replicated in each of its processes. In these terms, ADR is therefore conceptualised as a pluralistic system of dispute resolution that consists of autonomous and individual systems of process that conform to a central body of general theory and consensual principles. As a method of extracting the fundamental principles of ADR, the discontinuities and continuities between the theory and principles of civil procedure, as a unitary system .of procedure, and ADR processes are explored. However, in its conclusions, the thesis rejects the premises of a unitary system of procedure as forming the basis for the theory and principles of ADR. Instead, the contrary notion is advanced that ADR is an independent system of dispute resolution which is based on a theory of processual pluralism and supported by cogent processual principles. / Constitutional, International & Indigenous Law / LL.D.

本論文研究目的為： （１）探討談判系絡（negotiation context ）的影響；談判系絡包括談判的情境、 依賴的程度、談判的本質及態度取向，談判結構則分成競爭式談判結構及整合式（合 作式）談判結構兩種。 （２）探討在各種談判結構下，決策者會擬訂何種談判策略；而在談判雙方交換資源 之下，如何運用策略來改變談判系絡及對方的策略，使談判更加有利己方。 （３）探討採取何種策略將導致何種結果（outcomes），並找出評估的方法。 （４）探討談判的過程，並綜合上述（３）項以建立一套整體性的經貿談判模型，以 供未來經貿談判之參考。 本研究的重心係在理論與策略層面，對於個人層面如人格特質、技巧及戰術運用均不 加討論。研究範圍為兩元（兩國之間）經貿談判，研究目標則為民國７２年至７４年 之間的中美仿冒品談判（中美智慧財產權談判）。 本研究使用的研究方法係以文獻所建構之模型為主體，用之分析中美仿冒品談判的過 程、系絡、結構、策略與結果，並評估得失；資料搜隻除書籍文章外，尚包括報紙、 官方文件乃面訪與電話訪問的資料，其中電話訪問係以工業總會參加反仿冒委員會的 公司為母群體，進行調查。

A partir d’un dispositif eTandem chinois-français initié et développé par l’Université de Genève (Suisse) et l’Université du Hubei (Chine) sur cinq années, cette thèse aborde deux problématiques : l’ingénierie pédagogique du dispositif et la co-construction des compétences via la réalisation des rôles d’expert et d’apprenant entre les locuteurs natifs et non natifs. D’une part, nous montrons que la conception du dispositif doit prendre en compte l’influence des exigences institutionnelles, des pédagogies et des cultures éducatives sur la motivation, les stratégies et les performances des apprenants. D’autre part, nous analysons de manière fine des interactions au sein de binômes dont les styles d’organisation peuvent varier. Le « projet didactique » sous-jacent à leurs échanges, grâce notamment à son caractère institutionnalisé, mobilise des ressources technologiques et interculturelles en lien avec le processus d’apprentissage. Nous montrons en particulier comment les stratégies de résolution de problèmes (négociation du sens et de la forme) sont prolongées et enrichies par les outils informatiques. / Based on a Chinese-French eTandem course initiated and developed by the University of Geneva (Switzerland) and the University of Hubei (China) over five years, this thesis tackles two issues: instructional design of the course and co-construction of competences through the realization of the roles of expert (native speaker) and learner (non-native speaker). On the one hand, our research shows that the course design should take into account the influence of the institutional requirements, teaching methods and the educational cultures on students’ motivation, strategies, and performance. On the other hand, we analyse interactions between learners, which present varying organisational styles. Thanks to the institutionalisation of the eTandem course, the « didactical characteristics » identified in their interaction mobilizes technological and intercultural resources related to the learning process. We show particularly how problem-solving strategies (negotiation of meaning and form) are extended and enriched by new technologies.

A partir d’un dispositif eTandem chinois-français initié et développé par l’Université de Genève (Suisse) et l’Université du Hubei (Chine) sur cinq années, cette thèse aborde deux problématiques : l’ingénierie pédagogique du dispositif et la co-construction des compétences via la réalisation des rôles d’expert et d’apprenant entre les locuteurs natifs et non natifs. D’une part, nous montrons que la conception du dispositif doit prendre en compte l’influence des exigences institutionnelles, des pédagogies et des cultures éducatives sur la motivation, les stratégies et les performances des apprenants. D’autre part, nous analysons de manière fine des interactions au sein de binômes dont les styles d’organisation peuvent varier. Le « projet didactique » sous-jacent à leurs échanges, grâce notamment à son caractère institutionnalisé, mobilise des ressources technologiques et interculturelles en lien avec le processus d’apprentissage. Nous montrons en particulier comment les stratégies de résolution de problèmes (négociation du sens et de la forme) sont prolongées et enrichies par les outils informatiques. / Based on a Chinese-French eTandem course initiated and developed by the University of Geneva (Switzerland) and the University of Hubei (China) over five years, this thesis tackles two issues: instructional design of the course and co-construction of competences through the realization of the roles of expert (native speaker) and learner (non-native speaker). On the one hand, our research shows that the course design should take into account the influence of the institutional requirements, teaching methods and the educational cultures on students’ motivation, strategies, and performance. On the other hand, we analyse interactions between learners, which present varying organisational styles. Thanks to the institutionalisation of the eTandem course, the « didactical characteristics » identified in their interaction mobilizes technological and intercultural resources related to the learning process. We show particularly how problem-solving strategies (negotiation of meaning and form) are extended and enriched by new technologies.

This study compared simulated sales negotiations with authentic negotiations. Specifically, three areas of language were considered: (i) chat phases, (ii) mitigation in disagreements, and (iii) argumentation. Findings indicated that greatly reduced use of chat phases in the simulations led to an impoverishment of the interactional aspect of communication. A statistical analysis indicated that mitigation of disagreements was significantly reduced when compared to authentic negotiations. Finally, in spite of the difference noted between professional and non-professional negotiators in the simulated negotiations, a significant increase in the use of argumentation was found in the simulations. Even though further research would be required, it could be hypothesized that these differences may be attributed to the one-off nature of simulations, the absence of a surrounding business context and the intrinsic difficulty of using interactional language in simulations. These factors should be considered when simulations are used and designed for business and LSP training courses. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Linguistics)

The system of Alternative Dispute Resolution, commonly known as ADR, comprises multiple informal processes. Traditional processes of negotiation, mediation and arbitration are primary processes within the system of ADR. The elements of the primary processes have been combined with one another or with those of public process to form hybrid ADR processes original only to the system of ADR. These hybrid processes are: rent-a-judge, the mini-trial, the summary jury trial, neutral evaluation and mediation/arbitration. Under the auspices of ADR, derivative processes have also been developed, such as expedited arbitration, documents-only arbitration, final-offer arbitration and quality arbitration. Each process is distinct and separate, having its own unique form, function and method of transforming a dispute. Outwardly, this represents a diverse collection of disjunctive processes. Yet an introspective analysis shows that there is an innate centrality that originates in core principles that bind individual processes to each other and to a unified body of theory. These foundational principles of ADR are replicated in each of its processes. In these terms, ADR is therefore conceptualised as a pluralistic system of dispute resolution that consists of autonomous and individual systems of process that conform to a central body of general theory and consensual principles. As a method of extracting the fundamental principles of ADR, the discontinuities and continuities between the theory and principles of civil procedure, as a unitary system .of procedure, and ADR processes are explored. However, in its conclusions, the thesis rejects the premises of a unitary system of procedure as forming the basis for the theory and principles of ADR. Instead, the contrary notion is advanced that ADR is an independent system of dispute resolution which is based on a theory of processual pluralism and supported by cogent processual principles. / Constitutional, International and Indigenous Law / LL.D.

A partir d’un dispositif eTandem chinois-français initié et développé par l’Université de Genève (Suisse) et l’Université du Hubei (Chine) sur cinq années, cette thèse aborde deux problématiques : l’ingénierie pédagogique du dispositif et la co-construction des compétences via la réalisation des rôles d’expert et d’apprenant entre les locuteurs natifs et non natifs. D’une part, nous montrons que la conception du dispositif doit prendre en compte l’influence des exigences institutionnelles, des pédagogies et des cultures éducatives sur la motivation, les stratégies et les performances des apprenants. D’autre part, nous analysons de manière fine des interactions au sein de binômes dont les styles d’organisation peuvent varier. Le « projet didactique » sous-jacent à leurs échanges, grâce notamment à son caractère institutionnalisé, mobilise des ressources technologiques et interculturelles en lien avec le processus d’apprentissage. Nous montrons en particulier comment les stratégies de résolution de problèmes (négociation du sens et de la forme) sont prolongées et enrichies par les outils informatiques. / Based on a Chinese-French eTandem course initiated and developed by the University of Geneva (Switzerland) and the University of Hubei (China) over five years, this thesis tackles two issues: instructional design of the course and co-construction of competences through the realization of the roles of expert (native speaker) and learner (non-native speaker). On the one hand, our research shows that the course design should take into account the influence of the institutional requirements, teaching methods and the educational cultures on students’ motivation, strategies, and performance. On the other hand, we analyse interactions between learners, which present varying organisational styles. Thanks to the institutionalisation of the eTandem course, the « didactical characteristics » identified in their interaction mobilizes technological and intercultural resources related to the learning process. We show particularly how problem-solving strategies (negotiation of meaning and form) are extended and enriched by new technologies.

This thesis attempts to map out the negotiation strategies used by unskilled negotiators and among these, to identify those strategies which prevent such negotiators from achieving the most effective outcome. In highlighting such incorrect negotiating strategies, the thesis aims to steer academics away from using such strategies as part of their future teaching material on negotiation strategies. The theoretical aspect of this work describes the theory behind negotiating strategies and maps the features, styles and negotiation procedures which are used during negotiation. The practical part of the thesis interprets results gained from the research which was carried out. This research, which was conducted in the winter semester of the 2013/2014 academic year, involved the staging of bargaining games that were held over five separate sessions as part of the subject "Introductory training of social and management skills".