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本研究從語用學的角度探討荒謬劇「等待果陀」（Waiting for Godot）中種種的語言脫序現象。荒謬劇作家將戲劇形式以及內容結合起來表達荒謬的主題，並不再視語言為能夠承載意義的工具，因此「等待果陀」中充滿了違背一般日常語言使用規則的脫序現象。本文運用語用學理論規則來分析劇中人物的對話，並將其分門別類以及計算數量，以達到探究「等待果陀」的作者貝克特（Samuel Beckett）在劇中製造荒謬效果的主要語言策略。 雖然「等待果陀」充滿了脫序的語言使用，但是讀者和觀眾們依然能夠閱讀、欣賞，進而評論以及解讀這齣荒謬劇。但是在日常對話中，脫序的語言使用卻往往意味著溝通的失敗。這顯示人們在一般日常溝通和文學批評解讀中運用不同的語用原則。然而，語用學在文學批評解讀上的著墨卻極少，也無法解釋為何讀者觀眾在面對脫序的語言對話時仍有能力解讀。因此，本文提出新的語用原則－持續原則（The persistence principle）－來解釋此一現象，並架構一個文學解讀的模型來闡述文學批評解讀與日常對話的基本差異。 / The present study analyzes the language use of Waiting for Godot from the pragmatic point of view. The absurd playwrights combine the form and content of play to convey the theme of absurdity, and do not trust language as a reliable vehicle to convey meaning. Therefore, the conversations of Waiting for Godot are filled with disordered and incoherent language use. The present study analyzes the conversations of the play with pragmatic principles, and categorizes the language uses in terms of the types of violation cases. In addition, the violation cases are calculated in order to reveal the main strategy that Samuel Beckett adopts for constructing the dramatic effect of absurdity. Surprisingly, the readers and audiences of Waiting for Godot could still appreciate and interpret the play even though the play is full of nearly incomprehensible conversations. In daily life, on the contrary, communication would likely break down if the language uses are like the ones in the play. It indicates that people activate different pragmatic principles in daily communication and in literary interpretation. However, very little attention is paid to the field of literary critics and interpretation, and pragmatic principles cannot explain why the readers/audiences of Waiting for Godot could comprehend the play. Therefore, the researcher proposes the “persistence principle” to explain how the readers/audiences search for the meaning of the text. Moreover, a model of literary interpretation is constructed to illustrate the basic differences between daily communication and literature reading.

國立政治大學研究所碩士論文提要 研究所別：語言學研究所 論文名稱：中文交談中修復之社會語言學分析 指導教授：詹惠珍 博士 研究生：魏詩婷 論文提要內容： 在交談情境中，當說話者(Interlocutor)無法清楚表達其訊息時就必須進行修復(Repair)。修復的種類不僅止於句法結構，在說話者發現語意不足時，就有做語意修復的必要性。而修復的種類也會依其所行使的語用功能(Pragmatic Function)而有所不同。修復的方式更有可能因交談者雙方的年齡差距大小而改變。因此，本研究針對說話者行使的語用功能及交談者的年齡差距來探討修復的語言形式與使用情形。 本研究所使用的語料來自十份日常生活會話。其中，三份來自於20-30歲的說話者，三份來自於40-55歲的說話者；其餘四份來自於跨年齡層的交談者。另外，交談者的關係若非好友則為親戚，因此較沒有距離感。每份語料長約三十至四十分鐘，主題均與日常生活相關，以便蒐集到最自然的語料。 語料又根據修復的方式分為句法層次（Syntactic Level）及語意層次(Semantic Level)。其中句法層次又包含刪除（Deletion與添加(Addition)兩重種策略；語意層次則包括替換(Replacement)及添加(Addition)兩個策略。語用功能則分為釐清(Clarification)、確認(Confirmation)、解釋(Explanation)、贊成(Agreement)、強調(Emphasis)及弱化(Alleviation)六種。 所有語料先經分類後，再加以統計檢定。研究結果發現：(一)說話者使用語意修復的頻率顯著高於句法修復，(二)在語意修復中，又以縮限(Narrowing)的使用情形最多。(三)修復大多用來行使釐清語意的功能。(四)說話對象的年齡對修復的使用有部分顯著的影響。(五)年紀小的說話者較少對年紀大的聽話者進行修復。除了量化分析之外，本研究亦追加訪談，以便雨量話分析的結果做初步比對。訪談內容發現，大部分的說話者認為他們的確會因為不同的語用目的而使用不同的修復，但交談者的年齡並不會完全影響修復的使用情形。 關鍵字：社會語言學，交談分析，語用學，修復 / Abstract Perfect utterances do not occur all the time during the conversation. An unclear message is usually repaired to maintain the clarity of meaning. Repair forms at Syntactic and Semantic levels are examined in this study. Also, it is proposed that formal distribution of repair forms are conditioned by pragmatic and social factors. On pragmatic aspect, the principles of Clarity and Expressivity are conformed. For social constraint on repair forms, the influence of interlocutors’ age is suggested. Data analyzed in this study are collected from ten dyadic, face-to-face daily conversations, with each lasting more than 30 minutes. Subjects in the ten conversations share the same ethnic background—Taiwanese. In addition, they are from two different age groups, with half of them at the age between 20 to 30 and the other half between 40 to 55. Among the ten conversations: three of them are conducted by both interlocutors being old, three by both interlocutors being young, and four by interlocutors from different age groups. Repair forms found in the data are categorized into two linguistic categories. In Syntactic aspect, repairs are derived from Deletion and Addition strategies, the former consists of Word-Deletion, Ellipsis, and Marker Deletion, and the latter Modal Addition, Addition of Marker for Focus Changing, and Addition of Marker for Attitudinal Adjustment. As for Semantic repairs, they are those resulted from strategies of Replacement and Addition. The former includes Synonyms, Substantializatoin, Hyponymy, and Hypernymy; while the latter is composed of Narrowing. Results of quantitative analysis yield several patterns. First, repair forms at Semantic level score significantly higher than those on Syntactic level. Moreover, within the Semantic realm, Narrowing is the strategy most frequently used. Second, there seems to be a significantly stronger preference for repairs to conform Clarity principle than to comply Expressivity principle. Among pragmatic functions under Clarity principle, Clarification is the pragmatic function that recieves first priority. Interlocutors’ age is only partially influential to a speaker’s choice of repair forms with interlocutors from younger age group being noticed to be putting more emphasis on the importance of hearers’ age than those from older age group. Follow-up interviews suggest that interlocutors manifest repair differently for certain purposes. However, most interviewees point out that the consideration of both interlocutors’ age does not influence the choice of repair forms. Instead, it is hearers’ age, solely, that lay significant effects on the use of repairs for pragmatic functions. Key Words: Sociolinguistics, Conversation Analysis, Pragmatics, Repair

本論文主要任務為探討哈伯瑪斯（J?rgen Habermas, 1929-） 於《溝通行動理論》（Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, 1981） 中生活世界概念與其普遍語用學之關聯

在全球化的處境之下，有許多問題無法繼續依賴傳統的方式來解決，特別是關於正義，以及需要人類擔負起共同責任的問題。於是，建立一套放諸四海皆準的倫理學便成了當務之急。 當代哲學家阿佩爾承繼了康德倫理學的基本架構，並在語用學轉向的思潮下，將它由獨我論式的倫理轉化為以「先驗語用學」來終極奠基之「論述倫理學」。論述倫理學以「論辯」為其核心概念，主張在進行論辯時，有應當遵循之「不可規避的」若干預設。一旦否定了那些預設，便不可能藉由溝通達成共識，甚至會導致「實行上的自我矛盾」。阿佩爾的論述倫理學也強調它具有應用的面向，亦即它也處理了在歷史的現實情境中，如何促成實質的道德規範的問題。藉由提出後約定俗成式的道德，來將責任落實在既有的諸般制度之上。 本文試圖闡述論述倫理學的先驗奠基與普世應用的雙重特性，這使得它足以作為一套普遍的「巨型倫理學」，而能替全球化帶來的問題提供解決之道。

本研究旨在討論新聞記者如何運用語用學之「前提」概念來引導受訪者回答，藉由「丟面子問題」質疑並挑戰受訪者「答非所問」之迴避回應。個案研究以一則平面政經新聞報導為言說分析之例，從主張與前提兩個語言單位來探究前提在訪談問答間扮演何種角色與功能。 相關語言學文獻討論曾指出記者前提影響受訪者之回應面向。本文進一步認為，記者訪談前提往往誘導受訪者針對該前提回應(而非針對問題本身)，並藉助記者的背景知識與訪談對話以預設前提並挑戰受訪者。 歸納個案文本的言說分析與個案記者訪談後，本研究發現，記者前提所產生的命題確實影響並誘導受訪者回應，並以記者的前設知識來探討前提技巧如何獲得受訪者更多、更深入的回應。整理上述提問、回應模式，本研究擬出語用前提作為「問好問題」之言談方法及雙方互動的橋樑，盼能提供訪談者一套語言策略。 / The goal of this research aims to explore how pragmatic presuppositions in news interviews influence the interaction of interlocutors, conducted by discourse analysis on assertions and presuppositions within each pair of questioning. By identifying the face-threatening questions which ends up leading the interviewee to non-reply responses, the case study concentrates on one public-figure interview in attempts to unveiling the tactics of placing presuppositions, added by the in-depth interview with the journalist of the case to take the speaker’s meaning into account. The result of this research enabled the author to discover the interaction of presupposition in the form of propositions between the interlocutors that leads the interviewee’s response to challenge the journalist’s presuppostions. The researcher also found evidences indicating the presumption of the journalist produces presuppostion as well as the response, which enables this research to develop a pragmatic strategy of news interview based on the use of presuppositions.

本論文分析中文使用者如何選擇同意行為中相關之同意類別、同意程度、和語用策略。此外，本研究也檢視性別對人們同意使用的影響力。本論文採用言談分析(conversational analysis)作為研究框架。除此之外，本研究以言語行為理論(speech act theory)，合作原則(Cooperative Principles)及禮貌原則理論(Politeness Principles)作為理論基礎。 本篇論文調查八個雙人面對面的日常會話，其中同性別的會話共四份（包含男生和男生的會話兩份，以及女生和女生的會話兩份），跨性別之間的會話共四份。在這八段會話當中，總共找到152筆語料。在分析的過程中，先將同意的語料做分類，進而分析同意的類別、程度、語用策略的使用、社會因素(性別)，以及這四者之間的互動。 研究結果顯示，（一）同意類別方面，人們使用同意核心（Head act alone）和同意修飾語（Supportive moves alone）的頻率皆高於同意核心和修飾語的併用；（二）六個同意支類別方面，同意表徵（Agreement marker）使用頻率顯著高於其他五個同意支類別；（三）同意的強度方面，無條件同意（Agreement without contingency）的使用率顯著高於有條件同意（Agreement with contingency）；（四）無條件同意的支類別方面，強化同意（Upgrading agreement）的使用率顯著高於持平同意（Preserving agreement）；（五）語用策略方面，篇章修辭策略（Textual rhetoric strategies）的使用率顯著高於人際修辭策略（Interpersonal rhetoric strategies）；（六）篇章修辭策略的支類別方面，強調策略（Emphasis）和闡述策略（Elaboration）是最常被使用的；（七）修飾語的支類別和篇章修辭策略的互動方面，研究結果發現一項語用策略分工：強調策略通常使用於受同意的命題內容（Agreed propositional content），而闡述策略通常使用於新增的命題內容（Extra propositional content）；（八）人際修辭策略方面，研究結果也發現一項語用策略分工：讓步策略（Concession）通常使用於同意核心，而支持策略（Supporting）通常使用於同意修飾語；（九）最後，研究結果顯示性別會影響人們的同意使用情形。特別是女性容易在同意類別、同意強度和語用策略的使用上，受到聽話者的性別的影響。 / This thesis investigates people’s choice among categories of agreement construction, degrees of agreement, and pragmatic strategies in agreement. Also, the influence of gender is examined. Conversational analysis (CA) is taken as the framework of this thesis. Besides, speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1975), Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), and Politeness Principles (Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Leech, 1983) are theoretical foundations of this study. 8 face-to-face conversations, including 4 same-gender groups and 4 cross-gender groups, which yield 152 tokens of agreement, were investigated. Related data are classified and analyzed by categories of agreement, degrees of agreement, and pragmatic strategies in agreement, social factor—gender in this study, and the interaction among the four. The results of quantitative analyses confirm the following findings. (1) For categories of agreement, people apply both head act alone and supportive move alone more frequently than head act with supportive moves. (2) For the six subcategories of agreement, agreement marker overrides the other five. (3) For degrees of agreement, agreement without contingency emerges much more frequently than agreement with contingency. (4) For the subtypes of agreement without contingency, upgrading agreement is used significantly more than preserving agreement. (5) For pragmatic strategies, textual rhetoric strategies are applied much more frequently than interpersonal rhetoric strategies. (6) In textual rhetoric strategies, emphasis and elaboration are adopted most of the time. (7) For the interaction of subtypes of supportive moves and textual rhetoric strategies, a division of pragmatic labor emerges: emphasis often occurs in agreed propositional content, while elaboration often occurs in extra propositional content. (8) For interpersonal rhetoric strategies, a division of pragmatic labor is also located: concession often appears in head act alone, whereas supporting often appears in supportive moves alone. Lastly, (9) Gender is an influential factor in the use of agreement. Women are the one who tend to be influenced by hearer’s gender in their choice of categories of agreement, degree of agreement, and pragmatic strategies in agreement.

本研究旨在探討中美文化差異對於建議語行為的影響，並且進一步探究文化差異以及社會地位、人際熟悉度等情境因素如何影響台灣英語學習者的建議語行為。本研究的三組受試者分別為35位英語母語人士、35位中文母語人士、35位英文程度佳的台灣英語學習者。語料蒐集工具為言談情境填充問卷(DCT)。所蒐集的語料針對受試者的建議語策略使用來進行量化以及質化的分析。 研究結果顯示，中文組的建議語行為比英語組來的直接。而學習者組在建議語的策略使用上則近似於中文組，也表現出比英語組直接的建議語行為。這樣的結果很可能由中美文化的差異所導致。此外，台灣英語學習者的建議語行為受到了文化差異的影響，表現出來自於母語的語用移轉(pragmatic transfer)，除了語用移轉所造成的語用失敗(pragmatic failure)之外，研究者還發現兩項學習者在建議語使用上的語用失敗，分別是：教學引起的誘發性錯誤(teaching-induced errors)，以及使用過多文字(waffle phenomenon)。有鑑於這些語用失敗，本研究提出兩點教學上的啟示。一、語言教師必須引導學生瞭解文化差異對於跨文化溝通的影響。二、語言教師以及教材編者必須提供充足的語境訊息(contextual information)以教導英語學習者如何適宜地的表達。 / The present study aimed to explore the cross-cultural differences between the suggestion behaviors by Chinese and Americans, and further investigated how the differences affect Taiwanese EFL learners’ interlanguage suggestion under two social variables. Three groups of participants were concerned in this study. They were 35 native speakers of American English, 35 native speakers of Mandarin Chinese and 35 Taiwanese EFL learners. The data were collected by written DCT elicitation questionnaire. Participants’ responses were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to see how the three groups of participants employed the suggestion head act strategy, hedging devices, supportive moves and suggestion patterns. The results showed that the Chinese group was more direct than the American group. Besides, the learner group approximated the Chinese group and thus also employed more direct suggestion patterns and strategies than the American group did. This may be possibly due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and the American culture. This study also found that the EFL learners transferred both their native socio-cultural norms and pragmalinguistic conventions into their suggestion behaviors. In addition to pragmatic transfer, two more pragmatic failures were found; they were teaching-induced errors and the waffle phenomenon. With regard to these failures, this study suggested that language teachers should make learners aware of the importance of cultural differences in cross-cultural communication. Besides, teachers and language materials designers should provide as much contextual information as possible so that learners can learn the appropriate form or structure for its corresponding function.

曾幾何時，廣告在流行文化中已跳脫直接而露骨的銷售意圖，不論是電視廣告的表現形式，抑或報章雜誌的平面廣告，都歷經相當之變革。除了多姿多彩的圖像，更操弄了豐富的語言策略，甚且如詩一般的語言，融入文學新意，產生前所未有的廣告文學性。針對這樣的趨勢變遷，本文旨在透過以社會語用及批判性取徑（a sociopragmatic and critical approach）為主的言談分析（discourse analysis），為廣告文化在作者（／說者）和讀者（／聽者）間的溝通所扮演的角色提供一質性研究。嘗試從語言使用（language use）的層面來觀察：如何喚起群體意識？哪些是常用的語言策略？使用這些語言策略／修辭手段能給讀者帶來什麼樣的效應？這些語言使用伴隨著什麼樣的社會意義？分析架構植基於「攸關性理論」（Relevance Theory, Sperber & Wilson, 1986/1995)，從讀者花費處理訊息的精力（processing efforts）審視其所能獲致的效果（contextual effects）。在另一方面，如同Sperber & Wilson（1995: 279）對於往後研究的期許，本研究更在語用分析中加入了社會文化認知和情境的考量，此正亦批判語言學家們的主要關切（Fairclough, 1995）。 分析語料取材自誠品書店所發表的系列廣告文案，係著眼於下列幾個明顯的現象：（一）文中採取豐富嶄新的語言策略，包括了隱喻、姓名／名稱的平行、重複與敘事，這些修辭手段常更能喚起讀者的注意和興趣，產生詩歌性（poetic effects）等認知效果，並表現各樣的語用／溝通功能。（二）大量西方文明裡的名字／名稱巧妙而生動地運用在這些廣告裡，涵蓋人名（藝術家／作家／詩人／名人）、地名、文學藝術名作和知名品牌。（三）對於作者而言，他們可以蘊含更多的情感、態度、情緒和感覺於其中，產生溝通裡的的弱式效果（weaker effects of communication, Wilson & Sperber, 1992），也能規避一些較為嚴肅的社會責任；而就讀者來說，這些語言策略得以預留更寬闊的詮釋空間，更吸引讀者。（四）除了使用這些語言策略來表現文學性，作者並藉由與讀者間的認知環境，利用流行話題與生活經驗，傳達了知識建構、同儕情誼、精英主義、女性意識、人文關懷、都會城市中產階級的生活型態，展現流行文化中的多元文化交融以及外語的強勢霸權地位，反映了傳統的／已改變的／變遷中的文化價值觀，邀請讀者認可這些顯著的意識型態與跨文化價值觀，進而形塑文化多元的認同和社會認知，呼應言談與社會／文化間的雙向關係（dialectical relationship, Fairclough, 1995）。誠品書店一再發表的系列文宣，雖然無法同電視廣告般在日常生活中與讀者（／聽者）的密集式接觸，然卻能在充裕的版面裡，在微觀層次上運用更多的語言策略，也能在宏觀的社會文化認知層次上，透過對流行文化形式與功能的檢視，有助提升其企業形象以臻一文化地標，對於諸如：刻板印象、權力象徵（symbolic power）、社會趨勢與變遷、文化標記（cultural iconicity）與認同、性別角色等討論，提供反思的空間。並對相關議題如「什麼構成了、什麼排除自、以及什麼包含於流行文化之中？」、「是否存在著流行文化記憶？」提供有用的觀察。 / This study aims to propose a pragmatic study along with a critical analysis of the print advertisements of Eslite Bookstore in Taiwan. It explores the audience’s comprehension and interpretation regarding emotions, poetic effects, and storytelling in media communication under relevance–theoretic account (Sperber & Wilson, 1986/1995; Noveck & Sperber, 2006) by looking into contemporary Chinese print ads released by Eslite. Since poetic effects and storytelling in long texts suitably illustrate the reasoning and pragmatic inference towards emotions via larger units of text processing and inferred implicit meanings, the current study centres on the audience’s inferential processes and pragmatic interpretations over longer texts against institutional discourse, advertising. The audience searches for optimal relevance in the interpretation process, during which a wide array of weak implicatures, based on her greater share of responsibility, could be inferred and derived from the non-literal speech together with the context, depending on the different degrees of involvement and shared cognitive environment. The sociocultural aspect of language use, on the other hand, is further explored to see the inseparable relationship between language and social function. The rhetorical strategies of syntactic parallelism and repetition of name, metaphor, and storytelling are artfully crafted through literary styles within the ads to attract the audience’s attention, to initiate cognitive poetic effects and advertising literariness, and to perform diverse pragmatic/communicative functions. They convey too the dominant ideologies, viz. intellectualism, elitism, social critique of taste, friends’ rapport, feminine awakening, humanistic concern, and the current lifestyles of petit bourgeoisie in urban contexts. The chosen data vastly adopt elegant wordings and stylistic patterns from names of person (artist/writer/poet/celebrity), place, literature, fashion and brand names to deliver aesthetic value. Placing little emphasis on target commodity, they invite and encourage an imaginative audience to actively and cognitively consume the texts and stories, and spell out a variety of weak implicatures involving feelings, attitudes, emotions and impressions along the textual lines. They invisibly persuade her to recognise the significant inter–/cultural values. Positioning the audience as social elite, shaping and branding the corporate image as a cultural polysemy and landmark of cultural empowerment, they also initiate an emergent text genre with communicative innovation in cultural industry and academic disciplines. People in all languages often mean more than they say. Grammar on its own is typically insufficient for determining the full meaning of an utterance, the assumption that the discourse is coherent or ‘makes sense’ has a vital role to play in meaning construction as well. Just as syntactic surface structures display complexity of underlying structures, we can appreciate much the implicit meanings constructed, conveyed and enriched by storytelling and the poetic force of lexical items and syntactic–semantic–pragmatic interplay in media discourse, as shown in the study. This functional linguistic study reveals that the selling motive could well be melted and/or hidden through those communication strategies due to their implicitness, indirectness and vagueness, and clarifies the simplistic dichotomy between Eastern vs. Western cultures. The dialogic relations between form and function in advertising language reflect the social cohesion/interaction and cognitive dynamics of communicator and audience, thus maintaining the dialectical relationship between social structures and social practice (Fairclough, 1995).