隱喻研究能夠幫助我們了解人類的認知模式，觀察人類運用身體經驗學習抽象概念的過程。戰爭隱喻與人類生活經驗密切相關，過往研究顯示至少有七種概念會運用戰爭隱喻來凸顯事件競爭的本質，但是過去研究無法說明戰爭隱喻涵蓋的概念種類，並且缺乏有效的語言證據來證明隱喻映射的豐富程度。因此本研究將從來源域的角度出發，以語料庫為本，透過戰爭動詞在報紙媒體上的長期使用情形討論戰爭隱喻的使用分布及詞彙語意顯示之意涵。 本研究分析戰爭動詞在台灣報紙媒體上的隱喻使用情形，研究結果顯示戰爭隱喻的主題分布與事件概念性質相關，特別是體育、財經、政治等三個主題大量運用戰爭隱喻，顯示追求競賽勝負、利益和權力的概念都常用戰爭加以描繪。在語意梳理後則得到台灣報紙新聞使用的六個主要戰爭隱喻：追求愛情是戰爭、治療病體是戰爭、資安防護是戰爭、投資交易是戰爭、政治競爭是戰爭、競賽活動是戰爭。政治競爭、競賽活動和投資交易的語料數量與主題分布成正比，資安防護是因應網路時代來臨而產生的新興目標域，最後治療病體及追求愛情則是反應人類對於肉體以及精神上維持滿足的生存需求。至於各隱喻共同使用的概念元素顯示戰爭行動以參與者和交戰過程的描述最為重要。最後由其他隱喻詞彙分布和語意關係的比較，可以發現表達戰時攻防行動的詞彙最多，除了再次證明行動的重要性，也強調行動過程的攻擊性和結果。而大量使用近義詞、反義詞象徵漢語對描述競爭細節的需求。 最後，本研究針對以上發現對華語教學提出教材編排、教學設計與詞彙教學之建議，認為隱喻教學有助學生習得新詞彙，且透過詞彙網路的概念連結可提升學習效率。建議未來可針對口語語料進行調查，並分析語意之外的言談篇章要素，同時落實戰爭隱喻之教學設計用於課堂實際教學，以檢視教學成效。

《理想國》第六、七卷的主題，尤其是整個第六卷，通常被視為是一個知識論的討論，其中最主要的兩個談論即是線段譬喻與洞穴譬喻，因此如何正確地分別解讀兩者，並將兩者放在一個整全的框架下來理解，即是理解柏拉圖《理想國》知識論最重要的課題。通過本文的討論我們似乎可以看到，柏拉圖把知識與存有與真理連結在一起，並且存有與真理即是相互說明的概念，因此真理即是透過認識活動掌握那個對於存有者的存有之揭示（理念），因此認識能力即是瞭解存有，亦即「由靈魂的眼睛看」。而這個對於存有者的存有之認識活動要能夠獲得實踐，必須仰賴善的理念作為施力者，給予認識者去認識的能力、並將真理賦予給可認識者（理念），兩者在真理作為那個使得存有者的存有可以顯現的力量在認識活動中結合在一起，由此可認識者作為某個「真的」，而分有了真理。於此善的理念作為知識與真理的原因、並由此亦為所有者的存有的終極原因，但善的理念並非垂手可得，我們必須付出努力才可以獲致，獲致的方式是我們必須藉由辯證術與哲學的研究，逐步地自以肉體之眼所見的世界，上登到靈魂的眼睛所注視的純理性世界。 柏拉圖在這裡做了一個很仔細的關於知識要求的描述，以兩個不同的類比—線段和洞穴，去說明達致這個最高的原理原則的路徑，他先在線段譬喻中對知識種類與其對應的靈魂從屬狀態做區分與定義，然後在洞穴譬喻中，由人類在其本性上未受教育的最初狀態，和經過教育或啟發後不同的狀態，來解釋教育、或靈魂必須向上攀升的重要性。 經由對於兩個譬喻以及其他相關的概念之解析，我們將可以發現，柏拉圖在《理想國》中提出的真理觀，清楚地指出了存有者與其存有間有一個連結的關係，在真理作為解蔽性的意義中為心靈所掌握，於此對存有的揭示越多、則越真（越「沒有-遮蔽」），其遮蔽的程度越少；但另方面他又明確地排拒那些在存有者的領域中被他描述為「涉及感知與意見的」，並一再地指出上昇之旅除了「前往、趨近存有」外，亦在於排除感知的影響，在這個意義下，他特別強調數理知識的中介作用，並指出數理圖形與數字的抽象作用，可以幫助靈魂向存有趨近。但持平而論，柏拉圖仍為我們指引出一條通往存有的道路，並將《理想國》的知識論以一個完整的存有論的連結關係展現給我們（雖然不無理論上的困難），要求著我們將「真理」的本質與「存有」緊密結合起來，而哲學研究的目的與任務則明確地被定義為對存有的追問，以及將存有與真理之光帶回到「世界」中。 / The theme of the sixth and seventh Book of Plato’s "Republic", especially the whole sixth Book, is usually considered to be the discussion of the knowledge problem (or the epistemology) ; among them there are two main paragraphs about this issue, they are the divided-line simile and cave simile, so how to understand those two similes separately, and at the same time place them under one whole structure to interpret them correctly, namely is the most important task to understand the knowledge problem of Plato's " Republic ". Through the discussion of this thesis, we could see that Plato connected knowledge together with Being and Truth, and Being and Truth are the concepts which explain each other; so Truth is through knowing activity to grasp the revealing of the beings’ Being (Idea), to know is understanding Being, such as 'seeing by eyes of soul'. And to exercise this knowing activity of the beings’ Being, must be dependent on the Idea of Good as the empowerment, offer the power for the Knower to know, and offer Truth to the Knowable (idea) to be known, the two (the Knower and the Knowable) in Truth as the power that makes the beings’ Being shown connect together in the knowing activity, thus the Knowable been regarded as something ' true', and participated Truth. Hence the idea of Good as the cause of Knowledge and Truth, and also as the ultimate cause of the Being of the all beings, but to reach the Idea of Good is not a easy thing, we must endeavor really hard to obtain the Idea of Good. The way to obtain it is that we have to by means of the research of Dialectic and philosophy, ascend step by step from the world seen by bodily eyes, to the purely rational world seen by soul’s eyes. Plato made a very careful description of knowledge requirement here, with two different similes – divided Line and cave, to interpret the route led to this supreme principle. He first discriminates and defines the classification of knowledge and their corresponding subordinated soul states in the divided line simile, then in the cave simile, he brings up the primitive uneducated state of the human nature, and the different states after educated or enlightened, to explain the importance of education or the upward journey of soul. Via the analysis of two similes and other relevant concepts, we could discover, the Truth View which Plato puts forward in " Republic ", clearly states there is a relation linked between beings and Being, grasped by the mind in the Truth as the Unhiddenness; therefore the more revealing of Being, the truer (more ' un- hidden'), and the less its degree hidden is. But on the other hand he distinctly discards those which he described as ‘involved sensual perception and opinion’ in the field of beings, and constantly points out the upward journey not only about 'going to and close to the Being’, also about discarding the influence of sensual perception. Thus he especially emphasizes the intermediate position of mathematical knowledge, and point out that the abstract function of the mathematical figures and numbers could help soul come toward Being. But generally speaking, Plato still leads us to the road toward Being, and shows us the epistemology of "Republic" with one intact ontology interrelation (though there are still some difficulties in his theory), therefore forces us to integrate the essence of ‘Truth’ and ‘Being’ closely; in this way the purpose and task of philosophic study are clearly defined as the questioning of Being, and bringing the light of Being and Truth back to 'the World'.

隱喻被認為是最具鮮明語言共通性的手法，近二十年來「大自然」相關名詞隱喻備受學者關注，這類隱喻經常從對比觀點及認知語言學、語言文化學等角度來研究。大自然的譬喻中，生物的隱喻為口語表達中最積極的部分。生物的隱喻根基於人類與動物、鳥類、昆蟲之間特性、行為之比較，從隱喻的使用可窺探其語言文化上的不同思維，及不同母語者對同一生物既定形象的認知可能有很大差別。然而，由於長久以來學者研究隱喻的資料多源自字典或是有限的著作，因而此類隱喻並未得到充分研究。 本論文旨在研究現代俄國生物名詞隱喻的主要使用情形與趨勢，以俄語國家語料庫（НКРЯ）中的文學與政論文本語料為主，聚焦於較少被討論的俄文生物名詞隱喻於結構語義及功能修辭學領域中的使用情形，說明此類隱喻詞彙之來源語義屬性，歸納生物名詞隱喻所表達的特徵和涵義，確立現代生物名詞隱喻化趨勢的主要方向，使語料系統化，以俄語學習者角度更進一步分析此類隱喻在政論與文學文本中之修辭功能，從中對語言翻譯和語言邏輯分析有更深探討。

本篇論文引用Hopper在1993年所提出的五項原則，論證漢語中「起來」、「下去」、「上來」的多義現象是反映語法化的現象。在「起來」、「下去」、「上來」語法化的過程中，可以發現許多語意和語法的痕跡，例如語意選擇的限制、受詞位置的限制、受詞限定的要求、與完成貌時貌標記使用的限制。根據Lehmann 1991年的研究，這些痕跡說明「起來」、「下去」、「上來」在語法化的過程中是由「子句中」向「子句間」變動。這樣的語意變動主要來自於概念上由空間向時間的比喻轉換。除此之外，在「起來」、「下去」、「上來」的句子中，這樣的轉換還受到不同的語意角色要求所限制。 / This thesis applies Hopper*s Principles (1993) to assert that the semantic varieties of Mandarin directional verbs qi-lai, xia-qu, and shang-lai are reflections of grammaticalization. The grammaticalization of Mandarin qi-lai, xia-qu, and shang-lai has left traces on selectional restriction, syntactic constraints on object positions, object definiteness, and requirements of perfective aspect marker. Based on Lehmann (1991), these traces lead to the conclusion that Mandarin qi-lai, xia-qu, and shang-lai shift from clause-internal to cross-clause grammaticalization. The semantic shifts of Mandarin qi-lai, xia-qu, and shang-lai are considered to be motivated by SPACE-to-TIME metaphorical transfer. The transfer is also constrained by theta-role requirements.

隱喻及轉喻被廣泛的使用在日常生活語言中。認知語言學主張：隱喻及轉喻實為人類思想與溝通的中心。因此，語言學習者必須具備覺察及理解用以表示抽象概念的隱喻及轉喻用語的能力。然而，因為語言及文化的顯著差異，第二語言學習者在發展溝通能力時，也應培養譬喻能力。 許多學者提出各式教學方法。現存文獻中，使用以概念引喻為主的教學方式，著重於點出用以對比的兩者間之相對特徵，已獲得實驗證實能提升語言學習者之覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力。然而此教學方法忽略了語言文化間的差異填補，亦輕忽了轉喻的重要性。另一方面，使用隱喻映射為主的教學方式，能藉由實體映射及知識映射有系統條理的闡述用以對比的兩者間之對照關係，不僅有助於彌補因文化不同而造成的認知差異，亦將轉喻與譬喻視為同等重要。因而以隱喻映射為主的教學方式被認為是具備潛力的教學方法，但仍缺少實證。 本論文旨在以實證方式，研究以概念引喻及以隱喻映射為主的兩種教學方式對於以英語為外語學習者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力之學習成效。共有115位、分別來自一般大學及科技大學之大學一年級學生參與本實驗。參與者分成兩組，分別接受兩種教學方式。實驗分兩週進行：第一週先完成電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之前測，接著進行教學，第二週則進行電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之後測。測驗之結果則經由量化及質化方式進行分析。 實驗結果發現：兩種教學方式均對於參與者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力有正面成效。然而儘接受以隱喻映射為主之教學方式的參與者在覺察能力測驗中獲得顯著進步，特別是對於不包含體驗性描述的轉喻性隱喻及隱喻用語，表現尤佳。至於理解力測驗部分，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式對於解讀含有文化差異性的用語特別有助益。另一方面，相較兩組教學方式的表現成果而言，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式造成參與者的學習成果呈現較一致且穩固的成長。總而言之，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式因為提供了具結構性、系統性及邏輯性的映射過程，而促進學習者較容易覺察包含抽象概念的譬喻用語，克服因文化差異性而造成的理解困難，及獲致較穩固的學習成長。 本研究為以英語為外語學習者在學習譬喻用語—包含隱喻及轉喻—上提供了三點貢獻。其一，透過學習者培養譬喻能力之實驗成果，直接教學方式對於第二語言習得的效益再次獲得證實。其二，本實驗成果顯示：轉喻與隱喻實為密不可分的兩種概念，在教學過程中應把轉喻列為與隱喻一樣重要。其三，學習者的中介語包含了語言的普同性及差異性概念，因此應被視為連續體而非階段性結構；在設計教學教材時，應把此連續體的概念併入考量。總結而言，本實驗的成果不只在應用語言學領域提出見解，亦在第二語言習得領域有所貢獻。 / Metaphor and metonymy, pervasively found in everyday language, has been shown by cognitive linguistic research to lie at the heart of human thought and communication. Thus, ability to notice and comprehend metaphoric and metonymic expressions in expressing abstract concepts is indispensible for language users. However, since languages and cultures vary in a wide array of ways to employ metaphor and metonymy, L2 learners should develop metaphoric competence along with communicative competence. Various methods to develop L2 learners’ metaphoric competence have been proposed. In the extant literature, instruction involving conceptual metaphors (CM), which focuses on correspondences of general traits, has been proved effective in raising learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention for Hungarian and Dutch EFL learners. Its effectiveness in Chinese speaking context is worth attested empirically. On the other hand, metaphoric mappings, which illustrate both ontological mappings and epistemic mappings of two concepts in more systematic and detailed manners, offer a promising method for EFL language learning. Hence, instruction involving metaphoric mappings (MM) is assumed to be more effective than instruction of CM. The effectiveness of such a method is also worth attested empirically. The present study aimed to test the effects of CM and MM on EFL learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention of metaphoric and metonymic expressions with empirical evidence from a carefully-designed experiment. Finer-grained analyses on three important issues were provided: first, an in-depth examination of the intricate interaction of metonymy and metaphor as a continuum, and its influences on figurative language learning was conducted. Second, cultural universality and specificity among languages and the different degrees of difficulties for EFL learners in transferring expressions between L2 and L1 were also investigated. Third, whether structural and logical mappings between languages and cultures could assist learners to better grasp abstract concepts was examined. The participants included 115 Taiwanese EFL learners, who were freshmen of a general university and a four-year technological university. The English proficiency of the former group was high-intermediate and that of the latter was low-intermediate. The experiment contained three phases: pre-teaching, teaching and post-teaching. The participants were divided into two sub-groups: one received instruction involving CM, and the other received instruction involving MM. They were asked to complete the computerized metaphoric competence test before and after receiving instructions. The results of the tests were collected and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results showed that both instructions could lead to better awareness, comprehension, and retention. However, only the participants of the MM groups performed significantly better in the posttest regarding the Awareness Test, especially in finding metonymic-metaphoric and metaphoric expressions that contained no bodily descriptions, the two categories which were considered the most abstract among the expressions. Regarding the Comprehension Test, MM instruction was found to be especially beneficial for the participants in interpreting expressions involving cultural-specific conceptual metaphors. Moreover, MM instruction resulted in convergent effects in the participants’ performances and led toward relatively more consistent and steady progress. To conclude, MM instruction, with its structural, systematic, and logical mapping processes, was found to be especially helpful in facilitating learners’ awareness of expressions involving more abstract concepts, overcoming difficulties caused by cultural specificity, and leading to longer-term effects on retention. The present study sheds light on the application of metaphor and metonymy to EFL teaching and learning of figurative language in three aspects. First, that explicit instructions on second language acquisition carry beneficial effects is validated for the development of learners’ metaphoric competence in the target language. In addition, metonymy is suggested as equally important as metaphor, and should be included in EFL language learning programs. Moreover, that learners’ interlanguage system is a continuum encompassing expressions with universal and specific cultural characteristics is also validated. Therefore, designs of EFL teaching materials are suggested to take such a continuum into consideration. In brief, the results of the study contribute not only to applied linguistics but also to second language acquisition.