語言是人類傳情達意的工具，中、日文雖是不同的語言，但都以漢字作為表義的符碼，且經由人類共通的「身體經驗」衍生而來的身體詞彙，亦普遍存在於這兩種語言之中。過去關於身體詞彙衍生語義的研究，多集中於人體外部具體可見的五官及四肢，而作為人類生命跡象重要表徵的「氣」，雖虛無飄渺且難以捉摸，但在中、日文裡，亦存在著許多由「氣」衍生的語義，因此本研究擬以抽象的身體詞彙「氣」為對象，先探究「氣」的原型義(基本義)，接著從漢語辭典、日語辭典及語料庫收集「氣」的相關詞彙，作為分析的語料。 Lakoff在討論原型理論的時候提到，人類基於經驗和想像，將各種事物分類，一方面源於感知、動覺活動和文化，另一方面就是隱喻(metaphor)、轉喻(metonymy)和心理意象，而人類的推理也同樣依賴這些要素。隱喻過程是在不同的認知域中建立關連，Lakoff和Johnson將其細分為結構隱喻、方位隱喻和實體隱喻三類；轉喻則是利用事物的多重屬性，凸顯其中最容易記憶和理解的部份；而提喻(synecdoce)則是就種、類的從屬關係，探討語義的形成機制。本研究以中文和日文中由「氣」所構成的單純詞、複合詞以及派生詞為考察對象，透過認知語義學的「隱喻」「轉喻」等概念，分析這些詞彙的各種語義及其相互關係，進而探討其多義構造，最後經由繪製中、日多義詞網絡圖，由中、日文共同具有的核心義出發，探討中、日文「氣」衍生語義及其語義延伸機制之異同，經研究結果發現，中、日文「氣」的衍生義項及機制有許多相似之處，由此或可推知中、日文對「氣」的語義認知有其類似的心理意象及文化底蘊，而細究其間的語用差異及所考察出的不同衍生義項，則發覺中文的「氣」較傾向於表達客觀存在的事實或現象，日文的「気」則多涉及內心主觀的思維及感受。此外，日文「気」語義虛化的現象似乎比中文「氣」有更顯著的趨勢。

本論文應用隱喻與轉喻之理論觀點，探討台灣客語分類詞諺語之認知語意機制如何運作。首先，根據Kövecses and Radden (1998) 從認知語言學角度所提出的轉喻理論，分析台灣客語分類詞諺語中的轉喻類型。接著，本論文分析台灣客語分類詞諺語中隱喻機制的運作，結果發現普遍而言，隱喻都是以轉喻為基礎。此外，本研究針對Radden (2003) 所提出以轉喻為基礎的隱喻之四種來源分類提出修正。 除了呈現認知語意機制，文化制約之世界普遍性及台灣客家文化之特殊性也在台灣客語分類詞諺語中展現出來。最後，透過Lakoff and Turner (1989) 所提出的生命物種之大鏈隱喻，我們了解諺語所表達的最終概念是以人為中心，而且諺語通常帶有勸世的功能。簡言之，本論文藉由探討認知語意機制如何在台灣客語分類詞諺語中運作，呈現人類認知過程以及展現台灣客家文化。 / This thesis aims to explore how the cognitive mechanisms are operated in the classifiers and measure words in Taiwanese Hakka proverbial expressions, in particular metonymy, the interaction between metaphor and metonymy, idiomaticity, and cultural constraints. Since human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature, classifiers, representing conceptual classification of the world, are found to manifest metonymically and metaphorically. First, based on the metonymic relationships proposed by Kövecses and Radden (1998), cases involving metonymy are carefully spelled out. Then, cases involving the interaction between metaphor and metonymy are elaborated. The metaphors activated in these cases are generally grounded in metonymy, which evidences that metaphors generally have a metonymic basis (Radden 2003). Apart from displaying cognitive mechanisms, the classifier/measure word proverbial expressions in Taiwanese Hakka exhibit Taiwanese Hakka-specific cultural constraints and near universality in conceptual metaphors (Kövecses 2002). Cases which are more specific to Taiwanese Hakka are semantically more opaque whereas cases which are more near universal are semantically more transparent (Gibbs 1995). Furthermore, through the GREAT CHAIN METAPHOR proposed by Lakoff and Turner (1989), we know that all the proverbial expressions are ultimately concerned about human beings. Moreover, proverbial expressions tend to carry pragmatic-social functions, conveying exhortations. In brief, the cognitive mechanisms of metonymy as well as the interaction between metaphor and metonymy are pervasively found in classifier/measure word proverbial expressions in Taiwanese Hakka. Through unraveling the conceptual mechanisms associated with classifiers and measure words in Taiwanese Hakka proverbial expressions, this study betters our understanding of human cognition in general and Taiwanese Hakka culture in particular.

本研究旨在探究有關「思考｣ 的中文辭彙，藉以一窺人類思考過程的全貌，並進一步透過隱喻與轉喻等認知語意機制 (參看Kövecses and Radden 1998, Lakoff 1993, Ruiz de Mendoza 2000, Diez Velasco’s 2003等人之論著)，分析人類思考過程的中文辭彙體現。 首先，我們修改認知心理學中所提的訊息處理模型 (參看Palmer and Kimchi 1986, Sternberg 1969, and Neisser 1967等人之論著)，根據修改過後的模型，得到人類思考過程的中文辭彙體現可分為七種類型。在進一步分析後發現，有關「思考｣ 的中文辭彙所牽涉的認知語意機制包括Lakoff (1993)提出的隱喻類型，Kövecses & Radden (1998)及Diez Velasco’s (2003)提出的轉喻類型，及Ruiz de Mendoza (2003)所提出來的隱喻和轉喻的交互模式，而本研究另外發現需透過三重轉喻及兩個新的隱喻和轉喻的交互模式才能完整建立起人類思考過程的中文辭彙體現的字面語意與其象徵語意之間的連結。 / In this study, we intend to claim that the backstage cognition of thinking process, through linguistic manifestation, can be explicitly detected with six dynamic continuing stages. In addition, each stage reifies itself with linguistic expressions of concrete observable parts or organs of body, which in turn demonstrate that lexical manifestation of thinking is heavily based on such mechanisms as metaphor and metonymy. (cf. Kövecses and Radden 1998, Lakoff 1993, Ruiz de Mendoza 2000, Diez Velasco’s 2003). First of all, we refine the information processing model proposed in cognitive psychology (cf. Palmer and Kimchi 1986, Sternberg 1969, and Neisser 1967). Based on the refined model, the Mandarin lexical reification of thinking is claimed to fall into six stages corresponding to six types. A special case linking two or more stages is observed as the seventh type. Then, we probe into the linguistic data from the seven types of thinking. The analysis discovers that a full explanation of those linguistic data from the six stages of the thinking process requires the activation of some types of metaphor. We have also found metonymy provides mental access to thinking activities. As to the interaction of metonymy, the three types of double metonymy are not sufficient to account for the lexical manifestation of thinking. Triple metonymy also needs to be employed to explain the meaning derivations of the data. Finally, it is found that the three interaction models of metaphor and metonymy are insufficient to cover all the possible interactions of cognitive mechanisms behind the lexical manifestation of thinking in Mandarin. This study reveals two new interaction models not mentioned by Ruiz de Mendoza (2000).

本論文主要的目的為找出六個身體部位詞-臉、面、眼、目、嘴、口在台灣華語的真實使用情形。本篇所分析的語料皆來自於目前收錄最多筆語料、體裁種類平衡、被廣泛使用的中央研究院現代漢語平衡語料庫４.０版。我們有系統地分析了包含這六個身體部位詞詞彙的內部構造、語意分佈、與詞彙化類型。研究結果發現，在包含這六個身體部位詞詞彙中，[NN]N為最顯著的詞彙內部構造。而在語意分布的部份，相較於臉、眼、嘴，面、目、口較常被用來表達轉喻及隱喻等非字面上的意義。此外，人與情緒為最為普遍的轉喻意，這兩個轉喻用法在六個身體部位詞詞彙中皆可發現。此外，當身體部位詞詞彙表達人這個轉喻意時，其詞彙內部構造多為[NN]N ; 當身體部位詞詞彙表達情緒這個轉喻意時，其詞彙內部構造多為[NN]N與[VN]V。另外，大體上來說，無論身體部位詞詞彙是表達轉喻意或隱喻意，[NN]N為最普遍的內部構造。並且，當身體部位詞詞彙表達轉喻意或隱喻意時，最常出現的詞彙化類型為隱喻詞彙化（metaphorical lexicalization）。本研究結果期望能提供語料庫辨別轉喻及隱喻的方法，並期望轉喻及隱喻的研究可以從長久以來偏向質性的討論分析，擴展到量化的比較與討論。 / This study aims at finding the actual usage patterns of the six body-part terms liǎn, miàn, yǎn, mù, zuǐ, and kǒu extracted from the largest, balanced and widely-used Sinica Corpus 4.0. The word component structures, meaning distribution and lexicalization types in the six body-part terms are systematically analyzed and compared. The results show that, in terms of word component structures, the [NN]N structure is the most dominant word component structure across the six body-part terms. As for meaning distribution, it is found that miàn, mù, and kǒu are more frequently used to denote non-literal meanings (either metonymic or metaphorical meanings) than their counterparts – liǎn, yǎn, and zuǐ. In addition, PERSON and EMOTION are the most prevalent metonymic meanings across the six body part terms. It is also found that when the body-part terms denote PERSON, the most dominant word component structure is [NN]N, while when they denote EMOTION, [NN]N and [VN]V are the most dominant structures. In general, the [NN]N structure shows the highest frequency of occurrences in all the six body part terms when they are used either metonymically or metaphorically. As for the lexicalization types, most of the disyllabic words containing the six body-part terms are in metaphorical lexicalization when they denote metonymic or metaphorical meanings. The results may provide some insights for refining procedures of identifing metaphors and metonymies in corpora so as to accelarate quantification and statistical evaluation.

本論文「客語「放」及其同類動詞：框架語義與構式之互動」以Fillmore (1985)提出的「框架語義」以及Goldberg (1995)等學者提出的「構式語法」觀點為基礎，分析客語「放」字構式呈現的多義現象。客語「放」字涉及「使動事件」：空間位移與狀態變化。本文著重分析「使動結構」與客語「放」字在動賓、動補及句子等構式中語意－句法的互動。同時藉助隱喻與轉喻的強化，說明客語「放」字延伸語意之間的關聯性，並進一步闡述客語「放」字在動賓結構中詞彙化為複合詞的現象。此外，本文亦檢視客語其他放置類動詞：方向同類動詞、工具同類動詞、方式同類動詞，經由審視其詞彙化類型與框架語義之互動，說明其語意內涵與句法上的表現。因此，本論文經由分析詞彙化類型與探討事件架構中參與角色的展現與否，說明客語放置類動詞語意與句法間的相互關係。 / English verbs describing putting, a prototypical exemplar of a caused-motion activity, have been pervasively found to be the first acquired and the most frequently used verbs in many languages. Their semantic compatibility with various syntactic structures reinforces the association between verbal meanings and the constructions, giving rise to a grouping of related but distinct senses (Goldberg et al. 2004). Piong3 (放) ‘to put’ in Hakka is abundant in semantics. The basic meaning of piong3 designates a common pattern of human experience: An animate entity exerts manual force upon a physical object and causes the object to move. Adopting Goldberg’s (1995) Constructions and Fillmore’s (1985) Frame Semantics, this study aims to account for the meaning relatedness latent in piong3 and explicate the shades of meaning rooted in the set of its congeners with different degree of family resemblance. It is argued that the delicate nuances denoted by piong3 are derived from the interaction between frames and constructions while the extended meanings of piong3 are linked to its typical use through various metaphors and metonymies such as CONTAINER, EVENT STRUCTURE, CHANGE OF STATE AS CHANGE OF LOCATION metaphors and ACTION FOR RESULT metonymy. Furthermore, with regard to congeners of piong3 in Hakka, it is maintained that differences in profiling and lexicalization patterns capture the primary difference between piong3 and its congeners. Specifically, piong3 does not lexicalize other semantic elements (i.e. path, means, manner, result, and etc.) into its lexical meaning whereas its congeners explicitly do so, in that three subtypes of the congeners can be identified: directional congeners, means congeners, and manner congeners.

在中日文裡要表達某個物體的上方空間時，都會使用「上」這個字。因此中國人學日文或是日本人學中文時，往往會認為中日文的「上」是完全的對應。但仔細觀察中日文中關於「上」的例子，我們可發現很多實例並非呈現一對一的對應關係。本論文主要目的在以中日對照研究的立場，應用認知語言學的形象圖式及形象圖式轉換與隱喻和轉喻理論解釋中日文「上」的多義和語義延伸的現象，並描繪出中日文「上」的語義網絡。 本論文共分成五章。第一章，概述研究動機和方法及研究範圍。第二章，藉由形象圖式理論分析中文「上」的基本空間意義及延伸的意義。第三章，藉由形象圖式理論分析日文「上」的基本空間意義及延伸的意義。第四章，比較中日文「上」的共通點及相異點，並透過圖表來清楚呈現出其對應關係。第五章，本論文的總結，繪出中日文「上」的語義網絡，並提出本論文今後研究的課題。 【關鍵字】：認知語言學、形象圖式、被觀察者、參考體、語義延伸、隱喻、轉喻、文法化 / 中国語と日本語で〈ある物体の上部・上方〉といった空間を表現する際、中国語でも日本語でも同じ「上」という漢字を用いる。このため、日本語を学ぶ中国語母語話者、また中国語を学ぶ日本語母語話者が、日本語の「Nの上」と中国語の「N＋上」を一義的に対応させて使用してしまうケースが多い。しかし、実際の用例を見ると「Nの上」と「N＋上」が一義的に対応しない場合が多数存在する。そこで、本稿では「上」を取り上げ、認知言語学の考え方を導入して、日中対照研究の立場から、その共通点・相違点を比較し、日中両語の対応関係を明らかにすることを目的とする。また、認知言語学の意味拡張の概念を用い、その意味・用法がどのような認知プロセスを経て生まれたものであるのかを図示で解明してみたい。 　本稿は五つの章からなる。第1章は序論である。第2章では、中国語のプロトタイプ的意味とその拡張された意味を論じる。第3章では、日本語のプロトタイプ的意味とその拡張された意味を論じる。第4章では、対照研究を通じて、日本語と中国語の対応関係を論じる。第5章は、分析した結果をまとめ、今後の研究の方向と課題を述べる。 【キーワード】：認知言語学、イメージ・スキーマ、トラジェクター、ランドマーク、意味拡張、メタファー、メトニミー、文法化

隱喻及轉喻被廣泛的使用在日常生活語言中。認知語言學主張：隱喻及轉喻實為人類思想與溝通的中心。因此，語言學習者必須具備覺察及理解用以表示抽象概念的隱喻及轉喻用語的能力。然而，因為語言及文化的顯著差異，第二語言學習者在發展溝通能力時，也應培養譬喻能力。 許多學者提出各式教學方法。現存文獻中，使用以概念引喻為主的教學方式，著重於點出用以對比的兩者間之相對特徵，已獲得實驗證實能提升語言學習者之覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力。然而此教學方法忽略了語言文化間的差異填補，亦輕忽了轉喻的重要性。另一方面，使用隱喻映射為主的教學方式，能藉由實體映射及知識映射有系統條理的闡述用以對比的兩者間之對照關係，不僅有助於彌補因文化不同而造成的認知差異，亦將轉喻與譬喻視為同等重要。因而以隱喻映射為主的教學方式被認為是具備潛力的教學方法，但仍缺少實證。 本論文旨在以實證方式，研究以概念引喻及以隱喻映射為主的兩種教學方式對於以英語為外語學習者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力之學習成效。共有115位、分別來自一般大學及科技大學之大學一年級學生參與本實驗。參與者分成兩組，分別接受兩種教學方式。實驗分兩週進行：第一週先完成電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之前測，接著進行教學，第二週則進行電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之後測。測驗之結果則經由量化及質化方式進行分析。 實驗結果發現：兩種教學方式均對於參與者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力有正面成效。然而儘接受以隱喻映射為主之教學方式的參與者在覺察能力測驗中獲得顯著進步，特別是對於不包含體驗性描述的轉喻性隱喻及隱喻用語，表現尤佳。至於理解力測驗部分，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式對於解讀含有文化差異性的用語特別有助益。另一方面，相較兩組教學方式的表現成果而言，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式造成參與者的學習成果呈現較一致且穩固的成長。總而言之，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式因為提供了具結構性、系統性及邏輯性的映射過程，而促進學習者較容易覺察包含抽象概念的譬喻用語，克服因文化差異性而造成的理解困難，及獲致較穩固的學習成長。 本研究為以英語為外語學習者在學習譬喻用語—包含隱喻及轉喻—上提供了三點貢獻。其一，透過學習者培養譬喻能力之實驗成果，直接教學方式對於第二語言習得的效益再次獲得證實。其二，本實驗成果顯示：轉喻與隱喻實為密不可分的兩種概念，在教學過程中應把轉喻列為與隱喻一樣重要。其三，學習者的中介語包含了語言的普同性及差異性概念，因此應被視為連續體而非階段性結構；在設計教學教材時，應把此連續體的概念併入考量。總結而言，本實驗的成果不只在應用語言學領域提出見解，亦在第二語言習得領域有所貢獻。 / Metaphor and metonymy, pervasively found in everyday language, has been shown by cognitive linguistic research to lie at the heart of human thought and communication. Thus, ability to notice and comprehend metaphoric and metonymic expressions in expressing abstract concepts is indispensible for language users. However, since languages and cultures vary in a wide array of ways to employ metaphor and metonymy, L2 learners should develop metaphoric competence along with communicative competence. Various methods to develop L2 learners’ metaphoric competence have been proposed. In the extant literature, instruction involving conceptual metaphors (CM), which focuses on correspondences of general traits, has been proved effective in raising learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention for Hungarian and Dutch EFL learners. Its effectiveness in Chinese speaking context is worth attested empirically. On the other hand, metaphoric mappings, which illustrate both ontological mappings and epistemic mappings of two concepts in more systematic and detailed manners, offer a promising method for EFL language learning. Hence, instruction involving metaphoric mappings (MM) is assumed to be more effective than instruction of CM. The effectiveness of such a method is also worth attested empirically. The present study aimed to test the effects of CM and MM on EFL learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention of metaphoric and metonymic expressions with empirical evidence from a carefully-designed experiment. Finer-grained analyses on three important issues were provided: first, an in-depth examination of the intricate interaction of metonymy and metaphor as a continuum, and its influences on figurative language learning was conducted. Second, cultural universality and specificity among languages and the different degrees of difficulties for EFL learners in transferring expressions between L2 and L1 were also investigated. Third, whether structural and logical mappings between languages and cultures could assist learners to better grasp abstract concepts was examined. The participants included 115 Taiwanese EFL learners, who were freshmen of a general university and a four-year technological university. The English proficiency of the former group was high-intermediate and that of the latter was low-intermediate. The experiment contained three phases: pre-teaching, teaching and post-teaching. The participants were divided into two sub-groups: one received instruction involving CM, and the other received instruction involving MM. They were asked to complete the computerized metaphoric competence test before and after receiving instructions. The results of the tests were collected and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results showed that both instructions could lead to better awareness, comprehension, and retention. However, only the participants of the MM groups performed significantly better in the posttest regarding the Awareness Test, especially in finding metonymic-metaphoric and metaphoric expressions that contained no bodily descriptions, the two categories which were considered the most abstract among the expressions. Regarding the Comprehension Test, MM instruction was found to be especially beneficial for the participants in interpreting expressions involving cultural-specific conceptual metaphors. Moreover, MM instruction resulted in convergent effects in the participants’ performances and led toward relatively more consistent and steady progress. To conclude, MM instruction, with its structural, systematic, and logical mapping processes, was found to be especially helpful in facilitating learners’ awareness of expressions involving more abstract concepts, overcoming difficulties caused by cultural specificity, and leading to longer-term effects on retention. The present study sheds light on the application of metaphor and metonymy to EFL teaching and learning of figurative language in three aspects. First, that explicit instructions on second language acquisition carry beneficial effects is validated for the development of learners’ metaphoric competence in the target language. In addition, metonymy is suggested as equally important as metaphor, and should be included in EFL language learning programs. Moreover, that learners’ interlanguage system is a continuum encompassing expressions with universal and specific cultural characteristics is also validated. Therefore, designs of EFL teaching materials are suggested to take such a continuum into consideration. In brief, the results of the study contribute not only to applied linguistics but also to second language acquisition.