Hakka is an under-developed language. compared with Mandrin and taiwanese. Many fields of Hakka such as ststematic studies of syntactic, semantic and pragmatic theories remain unexploited. This thesis aims to exploring some linguistic phenomena of Hakka by means of the studies on the particle to in Hakka. To is a very versatile morpheme in Makka. It may serve as a main verb, a coverb, a presuppositional particle or a verb ending. Chapter Two explores the functions of to as a main verb and as a coverb. It discusses the three functions of to as a coverb respecitvely. To can occur between two portions in a sentence in which to serves to mark the relation between the two portions. Chapter three explores the relatio- ns between the two portions in such a to construcfion. The status of to in such a construction is also investigated. To can be a verb enaing of a verb compound. Chapter Four aiscusses what a verb+to compound is. It explores the productivity of to as a verb ending. It further explicates the structural ambiguity between a coverb to and a verb ending to. Cmapter Five makes a generalization and draws a conclusion. It is hoped t- hat this thesis may provide a more intensive analysis of some Hakka const- ructions involving to and thus may spark a wider interest in the Hakka la- nguage.

〈渡台悲歌〉是台灣客家民間文學的瑰寶，也是台灣客家族群發展自覺意識的重要文獻。本研究從新材料和新方法兩個角度切入對〈渡台悲歌〉的整理與詮釋。在新材料的部分，本研究發現〈渡台悲歌〉的第三個版本，並進行文獻的校勘、注解工作。在新方法的部分，本研究從作者、文本、讀者的不同角度詮釋〈渡台悲歌〉，進一步透視作為人類精神活動重要指標的文學作品所具有的開放與創新。本研究的重要發現與所解決的問題可以概括如下：1.發現〈渡台悲歌〉第三個版本，並據以為底本，完成校勘工作，校勘本共計380句，2660字。2.詳盡註解〈渡台悲歌〉詞彙175條，深入探討13條重要的文化符碼。3.就淵源而言，〈渡台悲歌〉極可能是繼承〈過番歌〉的敘述形式，而對閩南語〈新刊勸人莫過台歌〉的內容加以增補；就演變而言，〈台灣番薯哥歌〉和〈又題出台灣勸世文〉應是對〈渡台悲歌〉的承襲與精簡。4.〈渡台悲歌〉繼承七言長篇敘事的傳統，在韻腳佈置方面力求整齊，並且以每個韻腳的韻尾做為押韻與否的標準；在用韻疏密的安排上，極為均勻，有171處是隔句押韻。5.〈渡台悲歌〉巧妙地使用對偶、排比、頂針、譬喻、對比、誇飾、道地口語、反諷等修辭手法，增加敘事的文學性。6.運用科恩及夏爾斯將敘事區分為故事與敘述的敘事學方法，探討〈渡台悲歌〉的故事結構和敘述結構，深入討論〈渡台悲歌〉所達到的敘事功能。7.解決〈渡台悲歌〉所描述的渡台路線爭議，提供較為合理可信的路線選擇：家（陸豐河田）→橫流→潮州府→柘林港→台灣。8.從集體記憶的建構、意識形態的透露、他者形象的缺席這些不同的角度，深入探討剖析〈渡台悲歌〉展示的深層文化結構。9.從巴赫汀「眾聲喧嘩」及「公眾廣場的話語」兩個面向深入闡示〈渡台悲歌〉所呈現的文化審美意涵。

臺灣客家語（以下簡稱客語）在分類詞與量詞的界定上一直是處於模糊的灰色地帶，先前文獻對客語分類詞的看法因界定方法不夠精確而導致有些量詞被視為分類詞，或認為分類詞與量詞並無差別。導致了分類詞在客語教學中未受到重視。本論文的研究目的如下：一、藉由精準的分類詞判定方法，重新找出文獻中的分類詞，並盡可能提供客語分類詞的清單。二、以這些清單為基礎，歸納出客語分類詞語意歸類系統。三、比較客語與華語、閩南語的分類詞語意歸類系統。最後，根據兩方言的差異，提供給客語分類詞教學的依據。 因此，本論文利用Her & Hsieh（2010）與Her（2012）所提供的分類詞與量詞的語法測試、集合論、語意數值為基礎，重新界定歷年文獻中的語料。文獻來自教育部、國科會研究計劃、專書、碩士論文、字典。本文將這些文獻依其對分類詞的界定分成兩類：將量詞與分類詞視為相同、區分分類詞與量詞但不夠精準。

在前人的研究中，已透過音韻規則的角度分析梅縣客語 (Meixian Hakka) 和曼谷客語 (Bangkok Hakka)， 但仍有部分疑問未獲得合理解釋。諸如：部分聲調不會受變調規則(Tone sandhi)的影響、變調的觸發條件以及本調 (Citation tone) 和變調間結構上的關係等。 有鑒於此，本研究透過優選理論 (Optimality theory, OT) 重新分析梅縣客語和曼谷客語。 上述兩個方言有兩種變調的方式 : 同化(assimilation)和異化(dissimilation)。在此基礎上，為了更準確的描述變調現象，本研究在分析上主要採用必要性起伏原則 (obligatory contour principle) 和避免起伏原則 (no-jumping principle)，並應用聯合制約 (Constraint Conjunction approach) 的概念。採取此分析方式的理由在於分析對象的變調具有相當有標(marked)且受限於中心詞(head)右端音節的聲調。此外，本研究也採用一部分比聲調結構性制約(tonal markedness constraint)更高排序的信實性制約(faithfulness constraint)。這些制約會導致部分聲調或變調結構不受變調規則影響，例如：調域 (register) 和聲調的起點 (initial target) 將保留原始樣貌。 研究結果指出，聲調結構性制約和數個排序最高的聲調信實性制約能更準確地呈現梅縣客語和曼谷客語在變調時，輸入值與輸出值之間的對應關係 (input-output correspondence)。在論文結尾，筆者將綜覽本研究並提出未來可繼續延伸的相關議題。 / The grammar of Meixian and Bangkok Hakka tone sandhi has been analyzed from a rule based approach. Nevertheless, there are some questions and details that could not be solved by the analysis, such as the status of tones that do not undergo sandhi, triggers of the tone sandhi, and the structural relation between citation tones and their sandhi counterparts. Thus, the purpose of this study is to re-analyze the tone sandhi in Meixian and Bangkok Hakka under the constraint based framework, Optimality Theory (OT). There are two mechanisms of tonal alternations in the two dialects’ tone sandhi: assimilation, and dissimilation. So in order to capture the tonal alternations, the current analysis applies the concepts of the Obligatory Contour Principle, and the No-Jumping Principle. The constraints generated according to these principles work well with the application of the Constraint Conjunction approach. The conjoined constraints are needed since the tone alternations are highly marked, and depend a lot on the head/right syllable tone. Furthermore, this thesis also posits several faithfulness constraints that rank higher than the tone sandhi markedness constraint. The high ranked faithfulness constraints govern the preservation of several tones from any alternation, and preservation of some structures of the citation tones when they become sandhi tones (i.e. register and initial target). In conclusion, the positing of tone sandhi markedness constraints and undominated identity constraints presents a better input-output correspondence relation of the tone sandhi phenomena in Meixian and Bangkok Hakka. To conclude the thesis, a brief summary of the study and possible further issues are presented.

本文以客語移除類動詞為研究對象探索語意和形式的關係。動詞的語義透過詞彙分解化、概念結構、詞彙化、框架語義和顯像等機制帶出。後以Goldberg (1995, 2006)的構式理論為基礎，運用Iwata (2005a, b)建議的修正模式，對動詞和結構之間的整合，提出更精細、更詳盡的解釋。根據前述方法，我們初步將移除類動詞分為六個次分類，並呈現出他們在結構上被顯像的論元。最後帶入Iwata提出的模組，分析各次分類動詞和不同句子結構的結合情形和其後的語義表現。 / This paper aims to explore verbs of removal in Hakka with respect to the relationship between form and meaning. Following the constructional approach in the shape of Goldberg (1995, 2006) and Iwata (2005a, b), we display a finer mechanism for the integration of verbal meanings and constructions. Verbal meanings, L-meanings (Lexical Head Level Meaning), are carried out through the following concepts: decomposition, conceptual structure, conflation, frame, profiling. Constructional meanings or P-meanings (Phrasal Level Meaning), variants of L-meanings, are manifested by different constructions. In our preliminary analysis, we display six tentative subclasses of verbs of removal in Hakka, depending on their different lexicalized meanings. We also present the different roles they profile in phrasal expressions. Last, we demonstrate the integration of the verbal meaning and several constructions (e.g., BUN construction and LAU construction).

客語的「有」字就其語法功能而言可以作動詞、助動詞、及動詞補語用。就其意義上而言，「有」標示著領屬義、強調義、及結果完成義。在這些共時歧異的功能意義背後，實存在著一個核心意義---領有。本論文旨在用語法化理論將客語「有」字之共時分歧用法作一合理之解釋，而提出三個主張：第一、將存在的概念提升至更深層，將之視為領有義的預設。第二、將領有義分析為更基本的基模（source schemas）。第三、利用這些基本的基模來解釋「有」字的各種延伸意義。透過這樣的角度分析客語「有」字句，將可以更合理的解釋「有」的共時歧異現象。 / Hakka Yu 'to own, to possess' has various grammatical functions. It can function as a full-fledged verb, appear in a serial verb construction, serve as an auxiliary, and act as a verbal complement. With the structural complexity, Hakka Yu denotes possession, emphatic assertion and the existence of the resultative state of being. The divergent syntactic behaviors as well as the different functions of Hakka Yu do not share the same surface form by chance. The coincidence suggests that there must be an extant semantic core that links together all the seemingly unrelated functions exhibited by various syntactic structures of Yu. This thesis, aiming at linking the diversity of usage of Yu, claims that the structural divergence of Yu corresponds to the "cline of grammaticality," which synchronically refers to a continuum at one hand of which is a fuller lexical form, and at the opposite end, a reduced grammatical form. Three major claims are therefore advanced to account for the synchronic differences of Hakka Yu.

本論文應用隱喻與轉喻之理論觀點，探討台灣客語分類詞諺語之認知語意機制如何運作。首先，根據Kövecses and Radden (1998) 從認知語言學角度所提出的轉喻理論，分析台灣客語分類詞諺語中的轉喻類型。接著，本論文分析台灣客語分類詞諺語中隱喻機制的運作，結果發現普遍而言，隱喻都是以轉喻為基礎。此外，本研究針對Radden (2003) 所提出以轉喻為基礎的隱喻之四種來源分類提出修正。 除了呈現認知語意機制，文化制約之世界普遍性及台灣客家文化之特殊性也在台灣客語分類詞諺語中展現出來。最後，透過Lakoff and Turner (1989) 所提出的生命物種之大鏈隱喻，我們了解諺語所表達的最終概念是以人為中心，而且諺語通常帶有勸世的功能。簡言之，本論文藉由探討認知語意機制如何在台灣客語分類詞諺語中運作，呈現人類認知過程以及展現台灣客家文化。 / This thesis aims to explore how the cognitive mechanisms are operated in the classifiers and measure words in Taiwanese Hakka proverbial expressions, in particular metonymy, the interaction between metaphor and metonymy, idiomaticity, and cultural constraints. Since human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature, classifiers, representing conceptual classification of the world, are found to manifest metonymically and metaphorically. First, based on the metonymic relationships proposed by Kövecses and Radden (1998), cases involving metonymy are carefully spelled out. Then, cases involving the interaction between metaphor and metonymy are elaborated. The metaphors activated in these cases are generally grounded in metonymy, which evidences that metaphors generally have a metonymic basis (Radden 2003). Apart from displaying cognitive mechanisms, the classifier/measure word proverbial expressions in Taiwanese Hakka exhibit Taiwanese Hakka-specific cultural constraints and near universality in conceptual metaphors (Kövecses 2002). Cases which are more specific to Taiwanese Hakka are semantically more opaque whereas cases which are more near universal are semantically more transparent (Gibbs 1995). Furthermore, through the GREAT CHAIN METAPHOR proposed by Lakoff and Turner (1989), we know that all the proverbial expressions are ultimately concerned about human beings. Moreover, proverbial expressions tend to carry pragmatic-social functions, conveying exhortations. In brief, the cognitive mechanisms of metonymy as well as the interaction between metaphor and metonymy are pervasively found in classifier/measure word proverbial expressions in Taiwanese Hakka. Through unraveling the conceptual mechanisms associated with classifiers and measure words in Taiwanese Hakka proverbial expressions, this study betters our understanding of human cognition in general and Taiwanese Hakka culture in particular.

本文主要從句法(Syntax)與音韻(Phonology)的介面關係來探討東勢客語的陽平、陰平及陰去變調現象。本研究以語料庫為根據，觀察東勢客語變調的主要型態，並從句法與音韻的介面來定義變調範域(Tone Sandhi Domain)，包括音步(Foot)、音韻詞組(Phonological Phrase)、語調詞組(Intonational Phrase)等等。本文也發現變調規則必須以循環模式(Cyclic Mode)運作，而且三個變調規則的屬性皆不相同。陽平變調受音步規範、陰平變調較受音韻詞組規範，而陰去變調則不受音韻結構限制。 / This thesis explores the Yangping, Yinping and Yinqu Tone Sandhi Rules (YATSR, YITSR, YQTSR) in Dongshi Hakka from the perspective of the interface between syntax and phonology. According to a Dongshi Hakka Tone Sandhi (DHTS) corpus, this thesis presents the predominant tonal patterns of these rules, and defines the tone sandhi (TS) domain at the interface between syntax and phonology, including foot, phonological phrase, intonational phrase and so on. This thesis concludes that tone sandhi rules must apply in a cyclic mode, and that the three rules are subject to different prosodic structures. YATSR is conditioned by the foot, YITSR is better defined by the phonological phrase, while YQTSR is not structurally-bound.

本論文「客語打類、忍類及促類動詞中動力學之體現」從物理學中之動力學觀點來審視語言之現象，以Lai (2000)針對客語打類動詞詞彙化類型之研究以及Gao (2001), Gao & Cheng (2002)針對中文與英語中肢體接觸類動詞之研究為基礎，並進一步修正及採用Talmy (2000a)所提出之動力學架構來加以分析客語打類、忍類及促類三類近義動詞。客語之打類動詞涉及內在心理意圖與外在肢體接觸，亦即同時牽涉到心理層面與肢體層面中「力」的作用，忍類動詞中「力」的衝突發生於內在心理層面，亦即本我與自我之間產生衝突，而促類動詞則表現出交互心理層面中「力」的相對關係，亦即藉由溝通等方式與他人產生「力」的對抗。因此，本論文藉由分析此三類動詞，將得已呈現心理肢體(psychophysical)，內在心理(intrapsychological)以及交互心理(interpsychological)三個不同層面中動力學之體現，並能夠進一步檢視語意內涵「力」與此三類動詞之句法表現間之相互關係。 / Based on Lai’s (2000) study of verbs of hitting in Hakka and Gao’s (2001) and Gao & Cheng’s (2002) studies of verbs of physical action by impact in English and Mandarin Chinese, this study modifies the force-dynamic model proposed by Talmy (2000a) to analyze Hakka hitting verbs in psychophysical domain, Hakka refraining verbs in intrapsychological domain, and Hakka urging verbs in interpsychological domain. The analysis proposes that two force-dynamic patterns can be generalized from these three groups of verbs, one ONSET CAUSATION pattern, and the other ONSET DESPITE pattern. Moreover, the correlation between the semantic component FORCE and the syntactic manifestation has been examined. This force-dynamic opposition is manifested in syntax as demonstrated by resultative complements, BUN-constructions, LAU-constructions, the potential mode and verb-copying constructions along with the adverbs of duration. In addition, the confirmation of the speaker’s expectation can be achieved by adverbs of evaluation and adverbs of justification. The well-formedness of these syntactic structures and the felicity of the usage of the adverbs depend heavily on the interaction of the Antagonist’s force and the Agonist’s force.

本篇論文旨在從優選理論（Optimality Theory）的架構觀點分析海陸客語中 的三個音韻現象：變調（Tone Sandhi）、介音（Pre-nuclear Gliding）及音節連併（Syllable Contraction）。 　　在變調方面，由於海陸客語中上聲與陰入聲助數詞不因環境而變調，在利用之前文獻解釋時必須另外設定條件來說明海陸助數詞的特殊變調行為，本文建議利用優選論的制約來分析，本文所提出的一組制約，可以成功的解釋海陸客語中的上聲與陰入聲變調現象。 　　在介音方面，本文選擇以端木三所提出的音節結構為海陸客語音節結構，因為海陸客語中介音所呈現的行為較似起首子音的次發音特徵，因此本文亦提出了一組制約解釋海陸介音在音節中的歸屬。 　　在音節連併方面，本文檢驗了之前文獻所提出的方法，發現無法全面解釋海陸音節連併的現象，因此，提出一組關於音段與聲調的連併之制約將海陸音節連併現象以優選理論呈現。 　　本文是第一篇嘗試以優選理論解釋海陸客語音韻現象的研究，希望能從不同於之前文獻的角度討論海陸客語音韻的問題。之前理論運作的缺陷與不足，在本文的分析下，均可以成功的以優選理論之制約層級來說明。 / This thesis aims to explore three issues in Hai-lu Hakka Phonology in terms of Optimality Theory (OT). The three issues are tone sandhi, pre-nuclear gliding and syllable contraction. 　　Hai-lu Shang Toned and Yin-ru Toned numerals preserve their base tones in any case. Thus, previous studies would need to add an additional condition for the special tone sandhi behaviors of Hai-lu numerals. This thesis offers a set of OT constraints to explain tone sandhi in Hai-lu. The OT constraints can successfully operate Hai-lu tone sandhi without additional conditions. 　　Pre-nuclear glides in Hai-lu behave like the secondary articulations of the onsets. This thesis suggests Duanmu's (1990) syllable structure for Hai-lu syllables. A set of constraints are proposed to explain the pre-nuclear gliding in Hai-lu syllables. 　　The approaches previous studies suggest for syllable contraction are not across-the-board in Hai-lu. Thus, a set of segmental and tonal constraints are proposed to explain Hai-lu syllable contraction. The OT constraints operate syllable contraction in Hai-lu without difficulties. 　　This thesis is a pioneering study which aims to examine Hai-lu phonology in terms of OT. With OT constraint rankings, this thesis explains the remaining problems from previous studies successfully.