The nosem infection is a worldwide spread bee illness caused by two microsporidia (Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae). The aim of this thesis is to follow the occurrence of Nosema spp. and density of infection in the selected bee colonies considering the relation between N. apis, N. ceranae, climatic conditions and the condition of each bee colony concerned. In my thesis, I have used two ways of originator identification. The first was microscopy, using which we have discovered significant changes in the number of spores in one bee colony within one year. After the experiment had finished, we evaluated the number of measured spores in connection with the outside temperature, humidity, number of colonized frames, extenders, gentleness of bees and their sitting on the honey combs. The second way was using the PCR method. Through this method we have identified the percentage of positive bee colonies on the selected locations. Furthermore, we have confirmed the occurrence of each of the originators and evaluated if there is a mutual influence of Nosema spp. between bee colonies.

The Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) Act 53 of 2003 sought to redress the socioeconomic imbalances caused by South Africa’s apartheid laws. The Act included different strategies to give preference to previously disadvantaged individuals on such aspects as ownership, management, employment, enterprise development, preferential procurement, skills development and socio-economic development. This thesis does not explore the plausibility of the regulations but rather the possible gap between intended benefits and the impact of B-BBEE. It is intended to establish the administrative impact of Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) certification,1 using a case study of a medium-sized tourism enterprise. The findings of this administrative impact are juxtaposed with the policy intentions as established through policymakers. The primary question is ‘What is the administrative impact of BEE certification on tourism enterprises in South Africa?’ The main propositions are that the administrative costs of BEE certification have had a significant negative impact on the profitability and competitiveness of medium-sized tourism enterprises; that tourism enterprises are not aware of the full extent of the administrative costs of BEE certification; and that policymakers are not aware of the unintended impacts caused by BEE certification on tourism enterprises. The research was undertaken through two interrelated phases, the first of which was exploratory in nature and sought to establish the administrative impact of BEE certification through the case study organization. The second phase sought to present the findings regarding the administrative impact of BEE certification to policymakers, with the aim of establishing policymakers’ awareness of the gap between policy intentions and policy impacts. Multiple methods have been used in order to gather data that informs this thesis. Primary data was obtained through semistructured interviews. The thesis focused on a case of one medium-sized organization, which was selected using convenience sampling. An in-depth interview was conducted with the Head of Administration and Finance in the organization, as the key person responsible for overseeing the process of BEE certification. Since the thesis focuses on a single entity, the data pool was too small to allow for the generalization of findings, but sufficient for a series of in-depth explorations and assessments of the topic. Secondary data was obtained from various sources such as journals, periodicals, and reports, particularly in relation to regulatory impact assessments as well as on certification issues in the tourism sector. The main findings are that the administrative costs of BEE certification have had a minimal impact on the profitability and competitiveness of medium-sized tourism enterprises, especially from the second year of conducting the annual audits as the systems are already in place for oncoming audits. It is only about 0.01% of turnover. 1 An activity that stems from one of the regulations linked to B-BBEE Act. It is an annual certification to demonstrate the companies’ achievement as far as B-BBEE is concerned, and entails an audit process executed by South African National Accreditation System (SANAS) registered agencies. Page 3 of 3 However, the psychological burden associated with the stress of administrative preparations for audits makes it seem more costly. The tourism enterprises are unaware of the extent of the administrative costs of BEE certification in that they overestimate the cost implications by at least 75%. The policymakers are unaware of the unintended impacts caused by BEE certification on tourism enterprises, especially as they relate to the administrative costs. In conclusion, the administrative impact of BEE certification on medium-sized enterprises is minimal as far as costs are concerned; however the psychological burden, although not measurable, is substantial. Moreover, the policymakers are oblivious to any possible impacts that might have been caused by BEE certification on enterprises, thus making the gap between policy intentions and the policy impact more than it could have been had they had the awareness. Awareness at the least gives an option to rectify where possible, thus ignorance of situation can to a certain extent exacerbate the situation.

As abelhas e plantas apresentam diferentes graus de especialização em suas interações. Parceiros mais especialistas frequentemente apresentam uma história evolutiva mútua e sobreposição nas áreas de ocorrência. No entanto, a estrutura espacial dos ambientes nos quais esses grupos se distribuem é caracterizada por padrões complexos e dinâmicos. Para analisar a influência dos fatores que atuam na distribuição de espécies de abelhas e plantas associadas foram utilizadas a modelagem de distribuição de espécies, análise multivariada e ferramentas de sistemas de informações geográficas. Os resultados indicaram que a distribuição de gêneros estritamente associados, como é o caso de Peponapis e Cucúrbita, é influenciada pelo clima das áreas de ocupação, bem como provavelmente, por sua história evolutiva e pela domesticação das abóboras (Cucúrbita). Já os gêneros Krameria e Centris apresentam um padrão mais intrincado de distribuição, uma vez que a interação entre ambos é mais complexa. Centris é um grupo diverso que utiliza recursos florais de outras famílias botânicas além de Krameriaceae, o que provavelmente influencia seus padrões de distribuição. No entanto, os resultados obtidos para Krameria demonstraram de maneira geral, a influência de características climáticas na distribuição do grupo e uma provável dependência maior de Centris em alguns casos. Finalmente, foi também demonstrada a importância da inclusão de dados bióticos no processo da modelagem de distribuição, resultando no aumento da acurácia dos modelos e na alteração da projeção da distribuição para o futuro, considerando-se um cenário de mudança climática. Os resultados foram mais conspícuos quando foram consideradas interações mais estreitas entre espécies de abelhas parasitas e hospedeiras do gênero Bombus, do que entre Centris e Krameria. As técnicas utilizadas, em especial a modelagem de distribuição, representaram uma importante contribuição para a análise efetuada. No entanto, embora crescentemente utilizada, a modelagem de distribuição de espécies demanda técnicas e testes mais robustos para avaliar a acurácia dos modelos gerados. Além disso, um desafio adicional a ser vencido consiste no aumento e melhoria da qualidade dos pontos de ocorrência das espécies, principalmente no Brasil. Faz-se necessário um esforço adicional de coleta, especialmente em algumas áreas específicas, bem como, a conservação e digitalização dos dados das coleções biológicas. Porém, as técnicas utilizadas mostraram um grande potencial a ser explorado em outras análises, envolvendo questões biológicas diferentes, ou outros grupos taxonômicos e camadas de dados. / Bees and plants present different degrees of specialism in their interactions. More specialized partners generally present a mutual evolutionary history and overlap with their occurrence areas. Nevertheless, the spatial structure of environments occupied by them is characterized by complex and dynamic patterns. Species distribution modelling, multivariate analyses and geographical system information tools were used in order to analyze the influence of different factors that act in the geographical distribution of associated bees and plants. Results showed that the geographical distribution of close associated genera, such as Peponapis and Cucúrbita are influenced by the clime of occurrence areas, and also, by their evolutionary history and cucurbits domestication (squashes and pumpkins). On the other hand, Centris and Krameria genera presented a more intricate distribution pattern, since their interaction is more complex. Centris is a diverse group that uses other floral resources than those provided by the Krameriacea family, which has probably influenced its distribution, also. However, the results obtained for Krameria showed the influence of clime in its distribution and a stronger relationship with Centris in some cases. Finally, the importance of including biotic data in the species distribution modelling process was also demonstrated, resulting in a general increase in the models accuracy and also altering future scenarios projection, considering climate changes. Stronger interaction, such as the host-parasite bee species of Bombus showed more conspicuous results than those found for Krameria and Centris. The techniques, especially distribution modelling, made an important contribution to the analyses. However, in spite of being increasingly used, distribution modelling demands more robust tests and techniques to evaluate the accuracy of final models. Besides, an additional challenge to be achieved consists in the increase and improvement of species occurrence data, mainly in Brazil. An additional survey effort is necessary, especially in specific areas, as well as the conservation and data digitalization of biological collections. However, the techniques used here showed a great potential to be further explored in other analyses, involving different biological issues, other taxonomic groups and other data layers.

Bumblebees, like other Hymenopterans, perform learning flights when departing their nest for the first few times or when departing from a newly discovered food source. As bees can learn about the landmarks around a flower both on approach and on departure, it is possible that what they see and learn on approach affects what they focus on during their learning flight on departure. In the present study, bumblebees from a commercial colony placed in a greenhouse were allowed to land at an artificial flower next to a single cylindrical landmark in one of three different positions (west, north or east), while all bees departed the flower with all three landmarks present in each position. Bumblebees approaching the flower with the landmark in the west position (WEST bees) faced mostly in a westerly direction and toward that landmark on departure, while NORTH bees faced mostly in an easterly direction and toward the east landmark and EAST bees faced mostly in a northerly direction and toward the north landmark. Thus, each group was consistent but favoured a different direction and faced toward a different landmark compared to the other groups, though these differences were most prominent during the early phase of the learning flight. On the other hand, all three groups faced the flower during the late phase of the learning flight. I therefore conclude that bumblebees do learn about the landmarks around a flower on approach, and this affects the direction they face during their learning flight in a consistent way.

As operárias de abelhas sem ferrão são peculiares com relação à divisão do trabalho reprodutivo para a manutenção da colônia, visto que podem produzir ovos reprodutivos que originam os machos, além dos ovos tróficos destinados a alimentar a rainha. Desta forma, os estudos de expressão de genes e de proteínas envolvidos na biossíntese de vitelo vitelogênese - e incorporação deste material aos ovócitos contribuem para evidenciar diferenças intra e inter-específicas entre as fêmeas, em relação à fertilidade e comportamento reprodutivo. Os perfis de expressão do gene codificador da vitelogenina e da própria proteína, precursora da principal constituinte do vitelo, foram determinados para várias etapas do desenvolvimento de três espécies de abelhas sem ferrão. Para este estudo foram selecionadas as espécies Frieseomelitta varia, cujas operárias nunca põem ovos, mesmo em condições de orfandade, Scaptotrigona postica e Melipona scutellaris, cujas operárias desenvolvem os ovários e participam ativamente da produção de machos. O RNA total de corpo gorduroso sítio de biossíntese de vitelogenina de operárias destas espécies foi extraído e o cDNA obtido por transcrição reversa semiquantitativa foi amplificado, clonado e seqüenciado utilizando-se primers específicos para a vitelogenina de Apis mellifera. Os resultados revelaram que os cDNA parciais obtidos são bastante conservados entre F. varia, S. postica e M. scutellaris e mostram alta identidade (93-100%) em relação à região 3-terminal do cDNA da vitelogenina de A. mellifera. Entretanto, o perfil de abundância do transcrito difere entre as espécies de meliponíneos e entre estas e as abelhas melíferas. Em F. varia e S. postica a expressão do transcrito mostrou-se constitutiva ao longo dos períodos pupal e adulto, mas M. scutellaris mostrou diminuição da abundância de transcritos nas fases pupais mais avançadas e nas operárias recém-emergidas. Estas espécies diferem de A. mellifera cujas pupas não expressam o gene da vitelogenina. A expressão constitutiva deste gene em F. varia e S. postica mostra que a atividade do gene em questão não é modificada pela variação dos títulos de ecdisteróides e hormônio juvenil descrita para A. mellifera e outros insetos, indicando, portanto, ausência de controle da transcrição de vitelogenina por hormônios nas espécies de meliponíneos estudadas. No entanto, os resultados indicam a existência de controle nutricional da atividade do gene da vitelogenina, dado o aumento de expressão verificado em operárias F. varia alimentadas com dieta rica em proteínas (contendo pólen - a fonte de proteínas para as abelhas - e açúcar) em comparação com aquelas que receberam dieta exclusiva de carboidrato (açúcar). A presença da proteína vitelogenina na hemolinfa de F. varia ocorre concomitantemente com a expressão constitutiva do transcrito. Neste aspecto, difere de S. postica e M. scutellaris que também expressam o transcrito da vitelogenina ao longo do estágio pupal e adulto, mas a proteína correspondente somente é detectada nas operárias destas espécies que estão exercendo a função de nutridoras de crias. Pode-se concluir que o gene da vitelogenina é conservado entre as espécies de abelhas até aqui estudadas, porém sua expressão e possivelmente sua regulação diferem entre meliponíneos e abelhas melíferas, refletindo as diferentes estratégias utilizadas na divisão do trabalho reprodutivo. / The stingless bee workers are peculiar with relation to reproductive division of labor to colony maintenance, since they are able to produce reproductive eggs that will develop in males, beyond trophic eggs to feed the queen. In this way, studies about gene and protein expression involved on the yolk biosynthesis vitellogenesis and the incorporation of this material to the oocytes contributes to evidence intra and inter-specific differences between females, in relation to fertility and reproductive behavior. The vitellogenin, the main yolk constituent precursor, gene expression and the protein itself profile were determined to several developmental stages of three stinglessbee species. To this work were selected the species Frieseomelitta varia, whose workers never lay eggs, even in a queenless condition, Scaptotrigona postica and Melipona scutellaris, whose workers develop their ovaries and participate actively to male production. The whole RNA of the fat body the vitellogenin biosynthesis site - of these worker species was extracted and the cDNA obtained by semiquantitative reverse transcription amplified, cloned and sequenced through Apis mellifera vitellogenin specific primers. The results reveal that the obtained partial cDNAs are very conserved among F. varia, S. postica and M. scutellaris and show high identity (93-100%), in relation to 3-end A. mellifera vitellogenin gene. However, transcript abundance profile is different among stinglessbee species and with honeybees. In F. varia and S. postica the transcript expression is constitutive during pupal and adult periods, but M. scutellaris showed transcript reduction in the advanced pupal phases and newly emerged workers. These species are different from A. mellifera pupae that do not express vitellogenin gene. This constitutive gene expression in F. varia and S. postica shows that the gene activity is not modified by the ecdysteroid and juvenile hormone titers as descript to A. mellifera and other insects, indicating absence of vitellogenin transcriptional control by hormones in the studied stingless bee species. However, the results indicate the existence of vitellogenin gene activity nutritional control, given the verified expression increase in F. varia workers and drones fed with a rich protein diet (with pólen the protein bee source and sugar) in comparison with which ones received exclusive sugar diet. The presence of vitellogenin protein on the F. varia hemolimph occurs concomitantly with the constitutive transcript expression. In this aspect, is different of S. postica and M. scutellaris which also express the vitellogenin transcript during pupal and adult stages, but the correspondent protein is only detected on the workers of these species that are exerting nurse tasks. Is possible conclude that vitellogenin gene is conserved among the studied bee species, but its expression and possibly regulation are different among stingless bees and honey bees, reflecting different strategies used on reproductive division of labor.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-10-17Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:19:41Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 winckler_ff_dr_rcla.pdf: 3138851 bytes, checksum: 75109d4141d10eb2f5e439ee9f66638a (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Apini e Meliponini são tribos compostas por espécies de abelhas classificadas como eussociais avançadas e, portanto, apresentam divisão de trabalho reprodutivo entre as castas femininas e complexas adaptações comportamentais, adquiridas durante a evolução pelas operárias, para desempenhar as tarefas relativas à manutenção da colônia. A capacidade de voar dos adultos destes insetos está intrinsecamente ligada à maioria de suas atividades como o vôo nupcial para o acasalamento no caso das rainhas e machos e a exploração de novo habitat, fontes de alimentos e estabelecimento de novos ninhos no caso das operárias. Tanto em Apis mellifera, quanto em Scaptotrigona postica, o vôo é realizado por músculos denominados músculos indiretos do vôo por não apresentarem ligação direta com as asas. A contração desses músculos produz mudanças de volume no tórax e indiretamente, o movimento das asas. O objetivo deste projeto foi realizar medidas das fibras desse músculo em cada indivíduo e em cada fase da vida, aplicando aos resultados teste estatístico apropriado para verificar possíveis diferenças de desenvolvimento que possam ser relacionadas à função muscular e comparar a ultraestrutura e citoquímica da musculatura do vôo das castas femininas (rainhas e operárias) e machos em diferentes fases da vida, tendo em vista as diferenças comportamentais e fisiológicas entre as classes de indivíduos das duas espécies. O exame da musculatura do vôo, tanto com microscopia de luz como com microscopia eletrônica de varredura e transmissão, mostrou que o arranjo e a morfologia dos feixes musculares e das fibras que os compõe são similares nas duas espécies, no entanto os feixes musculares de Apis mellifera são formados por número maior de fibras. Medições das larguras das fibras mostraram diferenças estatisticamente significante entre as fases da vida... / Apini and Meliponini are tribes composed of species of advanced eusocial bees and therefore present division of reproductive labor between females and complex behavioral adaptations, acquired during the evolution by workers, to attend the responsibilities for the maintenance of the colony. The ability of adults to fly is intrinsically linked to most of their activities as the nuptial flight for mating in the case of queens and males and exploitation of new habitat, sources of food and establishment of new nests in the case of workers. Both in Apis mellifera, as in Scaptotrigona postica, the flight is accomplished by muscles called indirect flight muscles by not make a direct connection with the wings. The contraction of muscles produces changes in volume in the torax and indirectly, movement of the wings. The objective of this project was to perform measurements of muscle fibers from every individual in every stage of life, applying the appropriate statistical test to results in order determine possible differences in development that may be related to muscle function. Alsoo compare the ultra-structure of and cytochemistry of workers, queens and males flight muscle at different stages of life, with the behavioral and physiological differences between the classes of individuals of the two species. The examination of the muscles of the flight, both with light microscopy, and with scanning and transmission electron microscopy, showed that the arrangement and morphology of the muscle fibers bundles arrangement is similar in the two species, however the muscle bundles of Apis mellifera are formed by larger number of musclefibres. Measurements of the width of the fibers showed statistically significant differences between the life phases of the colonies components and between species. Similarly the ultra-structural examination showed that workers of both species emerge with... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Over the last several decades, the use of solitary bees as an alternative to honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) for pollination of commercial crops has increased, in part as a response to ongoing problems faced by commercial honey bee populations. Two solitary bee species have exhibited great commercial potential: the blue orchard bee, Osmia lignaria Say, and the alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). However, growth of O. lignaria and M. rotundata populations is limited in commercial systems, mainly due to low establishment of females at provided nesting sites, possibly due to mortality, dispersal, or other causes. Rough handling of pre-emergent bees may possibly contribute to post-emergence dispersal in O. lignaria. The current work addressed this hypothesis by using shaking as a proxy for rough handling. However, shaken bees did not establish fewer nests than unshaken bees. Therefore, commercial fruit growers using O. lignaria as pollinators should be able to remove cocoons from their nests as part of their management plan, without fear of increasing bee dispersal. When searching for a nest site, M. rotundata females are known to be attracted to previously used nest materials. The current work verified the attraction of M. rotundata females to old conspecific nests. It also sought to determine which nest components were most attractive to females. It was found that all components were equally attractive. It may be useful to establish these species' learning abilities in a laboratory setting. The current work attempted to design a conditioning protocol for solitary bees. Initially, a method utilizing the proboscis extension reflex was sought. However, O. lignaria and M. rotundata did not reflexively extend their proboscises upon antennal stimulation with sucrose solution. Therefore, another method of conditioning was implemented. Bees were conditioned to respond to floral odors in a feeding bioassay. Results are compared for both species, as well as for males and females. The research completed for this dissertation may provide helpful information for commercial managers of solitary bees seeking to decrease both bee dispersal and the incidence of disease and parasites.

Cotton is a high-value commercial crop in Australia. Although cotton is largely self-pollinating, previous researchers have reported that honeybees, Apis mellifera, can assist in cross-pollination and contribute to improved yield. Until recently, use of bees in cotton had, however, been greatly limited by excessive use of pesticides to control arthropod pests. With the widespread use of transgenic (Bt) cotton varieties and the associated reduction in pesticide use, I decided to investigate the role and importance of honeybees in Bt cotton, under Australian conditions. I conducted two major field trials at Narrabri, in the centre of one of Australia’s major cotton-growing areas, in the 2005-6 and 2006-7 seasons. In the first trial, I particularly assessed methods of manipulating honeybee colonies by feeding pollen supplements of pollen/soybean patties, and by restricting pollen influx by the fitting of 30% efficient pollen traps. I aimed to test whether either of these strategies increased honeybee flight activity and, thus, increased foraging on cotton flowers. My results showed that although supplementary feeding increased bee flight activity and brood production, it did not increase pollen collection on cotton. Pollen traps initially reduced flight activity. They also reduced the amount of pollen stored in colonies, slowed down brood rearing activity, and honey production. However, they did not contribute to increased pollen collection in cotton. In the second trial, I spent more time investigating honeybee behaviour in cotton as well as assessing the effect of providing flowering cotton plants with access to honeybees for different time periods (e.g. 25 d, 15 d, 0 d). In this year, I used double the hive stocking rate of (16 colonies / ha) than in the previous year, because in 2005-6 I observed few bees in cotton flowers. I also conducted a preliminary investigation to assess whether there was any gene flow over a 16 m distance from Bt cotton to conventional cotton, in the presence of a relatively high honeybee population. Both of my field experiments showed that honeybees significantly increased cotton yield via increased boll set, mean weight of bolls, number of seeds / boll, and weight of lint / boll. It was obvious that cotton flowers, and particularly cotton pollen, were not attractive to honeybees, and this was also reflected in the low proportion (5.3% w/w) of pollen from cotton collected in the pollen traps. However, flower visitation rate was generally above the 0.5% level regarded as optimal for cross-pollination in cotton, and this was reflected in increased yield parameters. I recorded a gene flow of 1.7 % from Bollgard®II cotton to conventional cotton, over a distance of 16 m. This is much higher than had previously been reported for Australia, and may have been a result of high honeybee numbers in the vicinity, associated with my managed hives. In an attempt to attract more honeybees to cotton flowers, I conducted an investigation where I applied synthetic Queen Mandibular Pheromone (QMP) (Fruit Boost®) at two rates, 50 QEQ and 500 QEQ / ha, and for two applications, 2 d apart. Neither rate of QMP increased the level of bee visitation to flowers, either on the day of application or the subsequent day. There was also no increase in boll set or yield in plants treated with QMP. My observations of honeybee behaviour in cotton brought some interesting findings. First, honeybees totally ignored extra floral nectaries. Second, most flower-visiting honeybees collected nectar, but the overwhelming majority of them (84%) collected floral nectar from outside flowers: this meant these bees did not contribute to pollination. Those nectar gatherers which entered flowers did contribute to pollination. However, they were observed to exhibit rejection of cotton pollen by scraping pollen grains from their body and discarding them, prior to returning to their hives. Pollen gatherers collected only small, loose pellets from cotton. SEM studies showed that cotton pollen grains were the largest of all pollen commonly collected by bees in my investigations, and that they also had large spines. It is likely that these characteristics make cotton pollen unattractive to honeybees. Another possible reason for the unattractiveness of cotton flowers was the presence of pollen beetles, Carpophilus aterrimus, in them. I conducted a series of studies to determine the role of pollen beetles in pollination of cotton. I found that they did not contribute to pollination at low levels; at high populations they damaged flowers (with ≥ 10 beetles / flower, no flowers set bolls); and that honeybees, when given the choice, avoid flowers with pollen beetles. Because the insecticide fipronil was commonly used in Australian cotton at flowering time, and because I had some experience of its toxic effects against honeybees in my field investigations, I conducted a series of laboratory and potted plant bioassays, using young worker bees. The studies confirmed its highly toxic nature. I recorded an acute dermal LD50 of 1.9 ng / bee, and an acute oral LC50 of 0.62 ppm. Fipronil’s residual toxicity also remained high for an extended period in both laboratory and potted plant trials. For example, when applied to cotton leaves in weather-exposed potted cotton plants, it took 25 d and 20 d for full and half recommended rates of fipronil, respectively, to become non- toxic to honeybees. I had previously investigated whether a shorter period of exposure of cotton plants to honeybees would contribute adequately to increased yield, and concluded that a 10 d window within a 25 d flowering period would contribute 55% of the increase in total weight of bolls contributable to honeybee pollination, but only 36% of the increase in weight of lint. Given the highly residual activity of fipronil I recorded, the only opportunity for an insecticide-free period during flowering would be at its commencement. I concluded that, while there is evidence that honeybees can contribute to increased cotton yield in Bt cotton in Australia, this is unlikely with the continued use of fipronil at flowering. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

本研究主要目的在於探討國內企業女性主管人員是否存有「女王蜂症候群（Queen Bee Syndrome）」(任職於原屬男性職業(如管理職位)的女性易顯出排斥同排競爭者的情結)的現象,以及這個現象對甄選決定的影響。研究者採用混合設計之實驗法，即以主管性別（男、女）、應徵者性別（男、女）及應徵者晉升潛能（高、低）等三個獨變項，並以主管對應徵者在有關甄選決定的評量項目為依變項（評量項目有：錄取可能性、資格符合程度、未來的工作績效現、晉升為經理的可能性、共事的愉快程度、以及建議應給予的起始薪資），，請參與受試之主管對所呈現之目標之物作甄選決定評量。最後再將研究結果進行統計分析，以瞭解這個變項對甄選決定的影響，以及驗證女性主管的「女王蜂症候群」現象。 參與本研究之有效受試樣本共152名（男性75名，女性77名）。研究程序以郵寄的方式將兩份研究問卷寄給企業人事單位或用人單位之主管，請主管收到問卷後填寫一份，另一份則請主管轉交給公司內另一名異性主管填寫，隨函附上回郵信封以便填答後寄回；另外，有些問卷則是透過研究者親友所認識的企業工作者，由他們攜問卷至公司後請該公司之男女主管各一名填寫，填寫完異後再郵寄或轉交給研究者。 研究結果發現，（一）.女性應徵者相較於男性應徵者而言，在被建議錄取的可能性、資格符合應徵職位的程度、被預期未來的工作績效表現、以及未來晉升為經理的可能性方面，女性應徵者所得的評價皆與男性應徵者相類似，但是女性應徵者被預期與其共事的愉快程度則是較男性應徵者佳。（二）.高晉升潛能應徵者被錄取的可能性較低晉升潛能應徵者大、高晉升潛能應徵者的資料被認為較符合應徵之職位、高晉升潛能應徵者的工作績效被預期將較優秀、而且未來晉升為經理的可能性也屬高晉升潛能應徵者較大。（三）.男女主管錄取應徵者的可能性、評量應徵者的資格符合應徵職位之程度、預期應徵者未來的工績效表現、未來晉升為經理的可能性、以及主管預期與應徵者共事的愉快程度並不會因為應徵者性別之不同而在評量分數間有差異。女性主管對女性應徵者的評量分數並未有低估情形。（四）.男女主管錄取男女應徵者的可能性、男女主管評量男女應徵者的資格符合應徵職業的程度、未來的工績效表現、晉升為經理的可能性、以及男女主管預期與男女應徵者共事的愉快程度之差異並不會受到應徵者晉升潛能高低之不同而不同。（五）.男女應徵者所得之起始薪資可說是相同而沒有顯著之異。 本研究最後乃針對不符合假設之結果提出討論，並提出本研究之建議，以供未來研究及企業應用之參考。

This dissertation examines some important physiological and pheromonal factors regulating foraging and colony growth in honey bee colonies. The first study analyzed effects of soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) on the development of hypopharyngeal gland, midgut enzyme activity and survival of the honey bee. In this study newly emerged caged bees were fed pollen diets containing three different concentrations of SBTI. Bees fed 1% SBTI had significantly reduced hypopharyngeal gland protein content. This study indicated that nurse bees fed a pollen diet containing at least 1% SBTI would be poor producers of larval food. In the second study nurse bee biosynthesis of brood food was manipulated using SBTI, and the resulting effects on pollen foraging were measured. Experimental colonies were given equal amounts of SBTI treated and untreated pollen. SBTI treatments had significantly lower hypopharyngeal gland protein content than controls. There was no significant difference in the ratio of pollen to non-pollen foragers and pollen load weights collected between the treatments. These results supported the pollen foraging effort predictions generated from the direct independent effects hypothesis. In the third study we tested whether brood pheromone (BP) regulated queen egg laying via modulation of worker-queen interactions and nurse bee rearing behaviors. This experiment had BP and control treatments. Queens in the BP treatment laid greater number of eggs, were fed for a greater amount of time and were less idle. Significantly more time was spent in cell cleaning by the bees in BP treatments. The results suggest that brood pheromone regulated queen egg-laying rate by modulating worker-queen interactions and nurse bee rearing behavior. The final study of this dissertation focused on how dose-dependent BP-mediated division of labor affected the partitioning of non-foraging and foraging work forces and the amount of brood reared. Triple cohort colonies were used and there were three treatments, Low BP, High BP and Control. Low BP treatments had significantly higher ratio of pollen to non-pollen foragers and greater pollen load weights. Low BP treatment bees foraged at a significantly younger age. This study has shown that BP elicits dose-dependent modulation of foraging and brood rearing behaviors.