Am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts ist die europäische Philosophie stärker als jemals zuvor geteilt in zwei Kulturen: die eine ist im Bemühen um wissenschaftliche Strenge rücksichtslos fixiert auf Paradigmen zeitgenössischer Diskussion, die andere ist durch die vage Anerkennung einer philosophischen Tradition befangen in Revisionen, Adaptationen, Assoziationen. Für die erste, heute in Deutschland vielfach dominierende Kultur gilt die Geschichte der Philosophie als uninteressant, weil hier und jetzt tel quel nicht einsetzbar, für die andere gilt sie als eine Art Maßstab des Philospphierens überhaupt. In der ersten Hinsicht können die Philosophien der Vergangenheit höchstens rational rekonstruiert werden (wiewohl dies nicht für nötig gehalten wird), in der zweiten bilden sie in jedem Fall einen Gegenstand der Refle xion, da sie zum historischen Bestand des europäischen Philosophierens gehören. Als möglicher Quelle von Argumenten wird einerseits der Philosophiegeschichte eine gewisse Funktion zugebilligt, als dem Vorausgesetzten gegenwärtigen Bewußtseins ihr andererseits eine allgemeine Bedeutsamkeit anerkannt.

Am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts ist die europäische Philosophie stärker als jemals zuvor geteilt in zwei Kulturen: die eine ist im Bemühen um wissenschaftliche Strenge rücksichtslos fixiert auf Paradigmen zeitgenössischer Diskussion, die andere ist durch die vage Anerkennung einer philosophischen Tradition befangen in Revisionen, Adaptationen, Assoziationen. Für die erste, heute in Deutschland vielfach dominierende Kultur gilt die Geschichte der Philosophie als uninteressant, weil hier und jetzt tel quel nicht einsetzbar, für die andere gilt sie als eine Art Maßstab des Philospphierens überhaupt. In der ersten Hinsicht können die Philosophien der Vergangenheit höchstens rational rekonstruiert werden (wiewohl dies nicht für nötig gehalten wird), in der zweiten bilden sie in jedem Fall einen Gegenstand der Refle xion, da sie zum historischen Bestand des europäischen Philosophierens gehören. Als möglicher Quelle von Argumenten wird einerseits der Philosophiegeschichte eine gewisse Funktion zugebilligt, als dem Vorausgesetzten gegenwärtigen Bewußtseins ihr andererseits eine allgemeine Bedeutsamkeit anerkannt.

by Thomas R. Willemain, Nelson S. Hartunian. / Supported by National Institute of Justice, U.S. Dept. of Justice 80-IJ-CX-0048

Mit Immanuel Kant beginnt das Problem der Geschichte der Philosophie als philosophisches Problem; zu Kant kehren daher die aktuellen Problematisierungsversuche gerne zurück, so auch Axel Beelmann. Eingangs schildert Beelmann in dramatischer Weise den Skandal, den eine systematische Vernunft im Faktum einer Philosophiegeschichte anerkennen muss, welche verschiedene Kulturen kennt, unterschiedliche Probleme benennt und divergierende Begrifflichkeiten einräumen muss. Es wird ein "Graben" zwischen systematischem und geschichtlichem Philosophieren aufgeworfen, welcher seit Kant - der sein eigenes Projekt einer "philosophischen Archäologie" nicht ausbaute - hauptsächlich auf zwei Wegen überwunden wird: im Entwicklungsdenken und als Narration. Beelmann unterscheidet eine "spekulative Philosophiegeschichte" von einer "philosophischen Philosophiehistorie" und einer "historischen Philosophiehistorie", womit eine Typologie für seine Untersuchung gegeben ist, alle prinzipiellen Möglichkeiten aufzuzeigen, "die Philosophie in ein Verhältnis zu ihrer Geschichte zu bringen".

Depuis une vingtaine d'année, pour examiner le développement historique des sciences, les historiens emploient des méthodes quantitatives. Utilisées dans une historiographie visant à lier le point de vue quantitatif et le point de vue qualitatif, ces méthodes ont donné lieu à des travaux importants dans différents domaines, en particulier l'étude des sociétés savantes, des revues, des institutions ou d'un secteur scientifique particulier. Bien que prometteuses, ces méthodes restent encore marginales dans le traitement de l'histoire de la philosophie des sciences. L'objectif de la présente thèse est alors de faire la preuve de l'utilité et du bien fondé des méthodes quantitatives dans ce domaine. Après avoir rappelé les thèses habituellement entretenues au sujet du contexte francophone en histoire et philosophie des sciences au tournant du XXe siècle, et dégagé les différents problèmes rencontrés au sein des études classiques et contemporaines consacrées à ce contexte, nous montrons en quoi une étude quantitative s'avère nécessaire. Nous présentons ensuite les différentes étapes et méthodes qui ont permis de constituer une base de données dont l’enjeu final est de dresser un tableau général et systématique du contexte en histoire et philosophie des sciences entre 1870 et 1930. Enfin, nous présentons et analysons certaines pratiques épistémologiques et éditoriales des Scientifiques-Philosophes au sein des périodiques philosophiques. Nous montrons comment ces pratiques ont participé à l’institutionnalisation de la philosophie des sciences au tournant du XXe siècle. / For approximately twenty years, historians have used quantitative methods to examine the historic development of sciences. These methods have been used in a historiography to connect the quantitative point of view and the qualitative one. They gave rise to important works in various areas, particularly in the study of learned societies, journals, institutions or and specific scientific fields. Although promising, these methods still remain marginal in the study of the history of philosophy of sciences. This PhD thesis aims to give evidence of the utility and legitimacy of the quantitative methods in this area.We discuss theories usually endorsed of context in history and philosophy of sciences in the turn of the twentieth century. Then, we clarify the various problems met within classic and contemporary studies of this subject and we show the necessity of a quantitative approach. After that, we present the various steps and methods needed to build a database to present a general picture of the context of history and philosophy of sciences between 1870 and 1930.Finally we present an analysis of some epistemological and editorial practices of the “Scientifiques-Philosophes” in philosophical journals. We show how these practices participated in the institutionalization of the philosophy of sciences in the turn of the twentieth century.

Mit Immanuel Kant beginnt das Problem der Geschichte der Philosophie als philosophisches Problem; zu Kant kehren daher die aktuellen Problematisierungsversuche gerne zurück, so auch Axel Beelmann. Eingangs schildert Beelmann in dramatischer Weise den Skandal, den eine systematische Vernunft im Faktum einer Philosophiegeschichte anerkennen muss, welche verschiedene Kulturen kennt, unterschiedliche Probleme benennt und divergierende Begrifflichkeiten einräumen muss. Es wird ein 'Graben' zwischen systematischem und geschichtlichem Philosophieren aufgeworfen, welcher seit Kant - der sein eigenes Projekt einer 'philosophischen Archäologie' nicht ausbaute - hauptsächlich auf zwei Wegen überwunden wird: im Entwicklungsdenken und als Narration. Beelmann unterscheidet eine 'spekulative Philosophiegeschichte' von einer 'philosophischen Philosophiehistorie' und einer 'historischen Philosophiehistorie', womit eine Typologie für seine Untersuchung gegeben ist, alle prinzipiellen Möglichkeiten aufzuzeigen, 'die Philosophie in ein Verhältnis zu ihrer Geschichte zu bringen'.

E. Maxwell, P.M. Marcus, J.C. Slater. / "This paper is based on a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at M.I.T." "May 2, 1949." / Bibliography: p. 55. / Army Signal Corps Contract No. W36-039-sc-32037 Project No. 102B Dept. of the Army Project No. 3-99-10-022

O Cd é um elemento pontecialmente tóxico que, em altas concentrações nos sistemas agrícolas, pode entrar na cadeia alimentar e causar malefícios ao homem. Quando um solo apresenta níveis de Cd acima do permitido ou estabelecido, sua disponibilidade pode estar acima das concentrações de origem no solo. Entre as medidas para a redução da sua disponibilidade está a aplicação de fontes de fósforo que, porém, podem apresentar uma determinada concentração de Cd como impureza oriunda da sua matéria prima (fosfato natural). Uma técnica que permite a obtenção de informações sobre a origem e o destino do Cd do solo e do fertilizante no sistema solo-planta é a técnica isotópica com auxilio do 109Cd. O presente estudo teve por objetivos: a) desenvolver e aplicar a metodologia com o radioisótopo 109Cd na avaliação da fitodisponibilidade de Cd; b) quantificar o Cd do solo e do contido no superfosfato triplo que foi absorvido pelas culturas de alface, feijão, milho e eucalipto; c) estudar o efeito do P na absorção de Cd por essas culturas; d) identificar, dentre as culturas estudadas, as espécies vegetais que apresentam eficiência na extração de Cd e estabelecer doses de fosfato para remediação. Foi conduzido na casa de vegetação do Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura (CENA/USP), em Piracicaba-SP, um experimento, com delineamento inteiramente casualizado, para a determinação da fitodisponibilidade de Cd em solo contaminado, com 43 mg kg-1, e tratado com cinco doses de fósforo (0, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 e 4000 mg kg-1 de P) na forma de superfosfato triplo. As culturas estudadas foram alface, feijão, milho e eucalipto. Amostras de solo do experimento antes da semeadura do experimento foram retiradas e analisadas em relação ao pH(CaCl2), fósforo disponível e teor de Cd extraído por método de DTPA e Mehlich-1 e valo L (109Cd e 32P). A adição de superfosfato triplo no solo contaminado promoveu diminuição do pH do solo e aumento do teor de fósforo disponível. O extrator DTPA indicou uma redução da disponibilidade do Cd no solo enquanto Mehlich-1 acusou o contrario. Apesar das condições adversas do solo as culturas da alface, milho e eucalipto responderam a doses de P, com aumentos na produção de matéria seca, com exceção do feijoeiro que teve seu desenvolvimento comprometido. Os teores de Cd na alface diminuíram nas doses de 250 a 500 mg kg-1 e na cultura do milho nas doses de 250 a 1000 mg kg-1. No feijão os teores de Cd aumentaram e no eucalipto os teores de Cd não apresentaram diferenças. O valor L de Cd aumentou nas quatro culturas estudadas com a adição de superfosfato triplo, em todas as doses aplicadas. Dos totais de Cd encontrados nas culturas, 2 a 40% foram provenientes do superfosfato triplo. Dentre as culturas estudadas as que apresentaram potencial para projetos de fitorremediação de Cd foram eucalipto e milho / Cadmium is one of potentially toxic element, which, in high concentrations in agricultural systems, may enter into the food chain and cause harm for man. When a soil presents Cd above the permitted or established level, its availability to the crops could be above the original concentration of the soil. Among the measures for reducing the availability of this element to the plant is the application of phosphorus sources, which, however, may present a certain concentration of Cd, as an impurity of raw material (phosphate rock). A technique which permit to obtain information on the origin and fate of Cd from the soil and of the fertilizer in soil plant systems is the isotopic technique using 109Cd. The present study had the objectives to: a) develop and apply of the methodology of 109Cd radioisotope on the evaluation of plant available soil Cd; b) quantity the soil Cd and of the triple superphosphate which was taken up by the lettuce, bean, corn and eucalyptus crops; c) study the effect of P on the Cd uptake by these crops; d) identify, among the crops studied, the plant species efficient in extracting Cd and establish rates of P for remediation. An experiment in a completely randomized design was conduced in the green house of Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura (CENA/USP), in Piracicaba-SP, to determine the plant availability of Cd in a contaminated soil with 43 mg kg-1 of this element treated with five rates of phosphorus (0, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg kg-1 of P) as triple superphosphate. The crops studied were, lettuce, bean, corn and eucalyptus. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, available P and Cd using DTPA and Mehlich-1 extractants and L value (109Cd and 32P). The addition of the triple superphosphate to the contaminated soil promoted reduction in pH and increased available P. The DTPA extractant indicated reduction of Cd availability in the soil while the Mehlich-1 showed the opposite. In spite of soil adverse condition the lettuce, corn and eucalyptus plants responded to P rates, with increase in dry matter yield, except the bean, to which had the growth affected. The Cd content in the lettuce decreased in the rates of 250 to 500 mg kg-1 and for the corn crop in the rates of 250 to 1000 mg kg-1. For bean crop the Cd content increased but there was no difference for the eucalyptus. The L value for Cd increased in all four crops with the addition of triple superphosphate, in all rates. From the Cd accumulated in the crops, 2 to 40% was derived from the triple superphosphate. Among the crops studied, eucalyptus and corn presented potential for the phytoremediation purpose

O Cd é um elemento pontecialmente tóxico que, em altas concentrações nos sistemas agrícolas, pode entrar na cadeia alimentar e causar malefícios ao homem. Quando um solo apresenta níveis de Cd acima do permitido ou estabelecido, sua disponibilidade pode estar acima das concentrações de origem no solo. Entre as medidas para a redução da sua disponibilidade está a aplicação de fontes de fósforo que, porém, podem apresentar uma determinada concentração de Cd como impureza oriunda da sua matéria prima (fosfato natural). Uma técnica que permite a obtenção de informações sobre a origem e o destino do Cd do solo e do fertilizante no sistema solo-planta é a técnica isotópica com auxilio do 109Cd. O presente estudo teve por objetivos: a) desenvolver e aplicar a metodologia com o radioisótopo 109Cd na avaliação da fitodisponibilidade de Cd; b) quantificar o Cd do solo e do contido no superfosfato triplo que foi absorvido pelas culturas de alface, feijão, milho e eucalipto; c) estudar o efeito do P na absorção de Cd por essas culturas; d) identificar, dentre as culturas estudadas, as espécies vegetais que apresentam eficiência na extração de Cd e estabelecer doses de fosfato para remediação. Foi conduzido na casa de vegetação do Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura (CENA/USP), em Piracicaba-SP, um experimento, com delineamento inteiramente casualizado, para a determinação da fitodisponibilidade de Cd em solo contaminado, com 43 mg kg-1, e tratado com cinco doses de fósforo (0, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 e 4000 mg kg-1 de P) na forma de superfosfato triplo. As culturas estudadas foram alface, feijão, milho e eucalipto. Amostras de solo do experimento antes da semeadura do experimento foram retiradas e analisadas em relação ao pH(CaCl2), fósforo disponível e teor de Cd extraído por método de DTPA e Mehlich-1 e valo L (109Cd e 32P). A adição de superfosfato triplo no solo contaminado promoveu diminuição do pH do solo e aumento do teor de fósforo disponível. O extrator DTPA indicou uma redução da disponibilidade do Cd no solo enquanto Mehlich-1 acusou o contrario. Apesar das condições adversas do solo as culturas da alface, milho e eucalipto responderam a doses de P, com aumentos na produção de matéria seca, com exceção do feijoeiro que teve seu desenvolvimento comprometido. Os teores de Cd na alface diminuíram nas doses de 250 a 500 mg kg-1 e na cultura do milho nas doses de 250 a 1000 mg kg-1. No feijão os teores de Cd aumentaram e no eucalipto os teores de Cd não apresentaram diferenças. O valor L de Cd aumentou nas quatro culturas estudadas com a adição de superfosfato triplo, em todas as doses aplicadas. Dos totais de Cd encontrados nas culturas, 2 a 40% foram provenientes do superfosfato triplo. Dentre as culturas estudadas as que apresentaram potencial para projetos de fitorremediação de Cd foram eucalipto e milho / Cadmium is one of potentially toxic element, which, in high concentrations in agricultural systems, may enter into the food chain and cause harm for man. When a soil presents Cd above the permitted or established level, its availability to the crops could be above the original concentration of the soil. Among the measures for reducing the availability of this element to the plant is the application of phosphorus sources, which, however, may present a certain concentration of Cd, as an impurity of raw material (phosphate rock). A technique which permit to obtain information on the origin and fate of Cd from the soil and of the fertilizer in soil plant systems is the isotopic technique using 109Cd. The present study had the objectives to: a) develop and apply of the methodology of 109Cd radioisotope on the evaluation of plant available soil Cd; b) quantity the soil Cd and of the triple superphosphate which was taken up by the lettuce, bean, corn and eucalyptus crops; c) study the effect of P on the Cd uptake by these crops; d) identify, among the crops studied, the plant species efficient in extracting Cd and establish rates of P for remediation. An experiment in a completely randomized design was conduced in the green house of Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura (CENA/USP), in Piracicaba-SP, to determine the plant availability of Cd in a contaminated soil with 43 mg kg-1 of this element treated with five rates of phosphorus (0, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg kg-1 of P) as triple superphosphate. The crops studied were, lettuce, bean, corn and eucalyptus. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, available P and Cd using DTPA and Mehlich-1 extractants and L value (109Cd and 32P). The addition of the triple superphosphate to the contaminated soil promoted reduction in pH and increased available P. The DTPA extractant indicated reduction of Cd availability in the soil while the Mehlich-1 showed the opposite. In spite of soil adverse condition the lettuce, corn and eucalyptus plants responded to P rates, with increase in dry matter yield, except the bean, to which had the growth affected. The Cd content in the lettuce decreased in the rates of 250 to 500 mg kg-1 and for the corn crop in the rates of 250 to 1000 mg kg-1. For bean crop the Cd content increased but there was no difference for the eucalyptus. The L value for Cd increased in all four crops with the addition of triple superphosphate, in all rates. From the Cd accumulated in the crops, 2 to 40% was derived from the triple superphosphate. Among the crops studied, eucalyptus and corn presented potential for the phytoremediation purpose

What does it mean to do philosophy historically, and when does the legend of philosophy begin? When Hegel tried to give a logical explanation of philosophy''s history, was he doing the same thing as Eduard Zeller in his account of Creek thought, or Kuno Fischer in his narrative of modern philosophy? l do not believe so, and I shall sugges t in the following that we should carefully differentiate between the different activities commonly referred to as the history of philosophy. I will point out the enormous productivity of the 19th century in terms of printed books devoted to the history of philosophy. I will also point to the context in which these were produced and used rather than examining individual works or authors. There is an entirely new context in the 19th century, which is the study of philosophy. A proper culture developed around the historical interest in philosophy, and it is this culture I want to sketch here.