Aux lendemains de la Première Guerre, le bouleversement est social, politique et culturel. Cela se traduit, chez Walter Benjamin, par une pensée de l'appauvrissement de l’expérience. La pensée rationnelle, elle-même, est dans l'impasse. Au regard de la situation, comment dire un monde qui disparaît et celui qui reste ? Nous sommes, avec Benjamin, en présence d'une radicalité qui ne cède rien à la désespérance. Le messianisme est rejoué, à contre-courant du capitalisme et du fascisme qui édictent un sens de l'avenir. C'est une réflexion au gué du temps, qui se tient entre le temps venu d'un changement nécessaire, politique et intellectuel, et le temps où l'on peut dire qu'un changement a eu lieu. Ainsi, à partir de l'appauvrissement de l’expérience, c'est la question des rapports entre théorie et pratique qui est reposée. Il s'agit de penser, et de penser le politique autrement, en faisant intervenir le théologique. Or, le sauvetage de l’expérience demande de retrouver l'étincelle toujours recommencée de la transmission, que nous proposons de dire : être dans l'intelligence de l'autre. / Just after the First World War, political, social and cultural disruptions are in the forefront. In this situation, Walter Benjamin is led to a reflection on the impoverishment of experience. Even rationality has reached deadlock. How to seize by words the world that has disappeared and the one that remains ? With Benjamin, one is confronted with a radicality which concedes nothing to despair. Messianism is reenacted against capitalism and fascism, which both firmly set the direction of the future. One is faced with a‛time-fording’ thought, halfway between the time of an upcoming – both political and intellectual – necessary change, and the time of a new regime of thought. Thus, from the impoverishment of experience arises anew the question of theory and practice. The stake is to think, to think politics in another way, which involves theology. The salvation of experience, nevertheless, demands to revive the ever-rekindling spark of transmission, that is : being in understanding with the other.

Cette thèse a pour ambition de résoudre le problème central de la philosophie morale et politique qu'est celui du consentement à la soumission par la construction d'un concept philosophique de soumission et par la résolution du problème dans le cadre de la soumission féminine. Nous montrons 1/ que l'étude de la soumission est nécessaire à une théorie du pouvoir, qu'elle implique de changer de perspective pour adopter le point de vue de ceux sur qui le pouvoir s'exerce et décrire leur expérience, mais qu'elle semble contradictoire avec la liberté naturelle des individus; 2/ que lorsque l'on restreint l'analyse du problème du consentement à la soumission à la façon dont il se pose dans le cadre des rapports homme-femme, il est impossible de tenir ensemble le concept de consentement et celui de soumission. Si l'on adopte une perspective libérale, le consentement de l'agent prévaut et dissout la soumission dans sa spécificité; si, au contraire, l'on insiste sur la dimension structurelle de la soumission féminine, le consentement n'apparaît que comme un manifestation de la fausse conscience des opprimées; 3/ qu'en surmontant la dichotomie entre individu et structure par les apports de la théorie économique et de la philosophie beauvoirienne, le consentement à la soumission n'apparaît plus comme une contradiction mais comme un choix rationnel des femmes qui s'explique par leur situation et l'ambiguïté de leur existence. La soumission est fondée sur un consentement mais qui diffère du consentement juridique du libéralisme et, ainsi, n'est pas contradictoire avec la réalité de l'oppression qui se joue dans ce consentement même. / This dissertation aims at resolving a central problem in moral and political philosophy, the problem of consenting to one' own submission, by building a philosophical concept of submission and resolving of the problem in the specific context of female submission. We argue that 1/ studying submission is crucial for a theory of power, that it implies a change of perspective in order to adopt the stand point of those on whom power is exerted and to describe their experience, but that such a study seems at odds with the natural freedom of individual; 2/ when one narrows the analysis to the problem of consent to submission in the context of male/female relations, it is impossible to hold together the concept of consent and the concept of submission. From a liberal perspective, the agent's consent prevails and dissolves submission in its specificity; conversely, when emphasizing the structural dimension of female submission, consent only appears as a demonstration of the false consciousness of the oppressed; 3/when one overcomes the agency/structure dichotomy through the methods and results of economic theory and Beauvoir's philosophy, consent to submission stops appearing as a contradiction, and is instead revealed as a rational choice of women, explained by their situation and the ambiguity of their existence. Submission is thus founded by a consent -a consent that is not the liberal legal consent and, as such, is not contradictory to the reality of the oppression at stake in this very consent.

Das Thema dieser Studie sind die konzeptionellen Grundlagen politischen Denkens in der frühen Tokugawa-Zeit (1600–1868). Im Mittelpunkt steht das Werk des konfuzianischen Gelehrten und Militärexperten Yamaga Sokō (1622–85). Dieser problematisierte das Verhältnis zwischen Theorie und Praxis in der Gelehrsamkeit seiner Zeit. Seinen Entwurf einer praktischen Politiklehre entwickelte er vor dem Hintergrund eines tiefgreifenden Strukturwandels in der Formierungsphase des Tokugawa-Shogunats, das die Regierenden mit einem hohen Bedarf an normativer Regulierung konfrontierte. Obwohl eine umfangreiche Forschung zu Sokō vorliegt, sind die konzeptionellen Grundlagen seines Politikdenkens nur wenig untersucht worden. Um diese Leerstelle zu schließen, widmet sich die diese Studie einer Analyse des Wissens- und Handlungskonzepts im Rahmen des Hauptwerks. “Wissen” und “Handeln” sind Schlüsselbegriffe der konfuzianischen Tradition und werden bei Sokō in charakteristischer Weise umgedeutet. Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass der Gelehrte sich eines weiten Spektrums konfuzianischer als auch außerkonfuzianischer Begriffsbestände und Argumentationsstrategien bediente, um seiner politischen Rationalitätsvorstellung Ausdruck zu verleihen. Mit ihren Ergebnissen leistet die vorliegende Studie einen Beitrag zur Neubewertung der politischen Ideengeschichte in der frühen Neuzeit aus¬gehend von ihren konzeptionellen Grundlagen. Der Anhang macht der Forschung zentrale Kapitel aus dem Haupt¬werk Sokōs in Form annotierter Übersetzungen erstmals in einer westlichen Sprache zugänglich. / The study at hand explores the conceptual foundations of political thought in the Tokugawa period (1600–1868). It focuses on the teachings of the Confucian scholar and military expert Yamaga Sokō (1622–85). In previous research, Sokō has been associated with the emergence of a neoclassical movement in Tokugawa-Confucianism as well as with a new type of warrior ethics, or bushidō. However, despite this general acknowledgement, only limited research has been conducted on the conceptual foundations of his thought. The present study addresses this problem by exploring Sokō’s interpretation of the Confucian key concepts “knowledge” (Chi. zhi / Jpn. chi) and “action” (xing/kō, okonau) in the framework of his major work, “Yamaga’s Sayings Grouped [by Subject]” (Yamaga gorui, 1665). Both concepts are at the heart of his practical teachings for the contemporary warrior government. The analysis shows that Sokō draws on various conceptual sources and strategies of argumentation from within and outside of the Confucian tradition. The latter is characterized by a strong concern for the need for normative regulation as a result of the structural transformation of early Tokugawa society. The present study’s conceptual approach draws attention to the normative sources of Sokō’s political rationality unrecognised in previous research. Thereby, the study contributes to a reevaluation of the conceptual foundations of political thought in the Tokugawa period. In addition, it offers annotated translations of central chapters from Sokō’s major work for the first time in a Western language.

Long term data generated at four rural stations are compared to determine similarities and differences in aerosol compositions and factors contributing to observed differences at different regions in Turkey. The stations used in this study are located at Mediterranean coast (20 km to the west of Antalya city), Black Sea coast (20 km to the east of Amasra town), Central Anatolia (&Ccedil / ubuk, Ankara) and Northeastern part of the Anatolian Plateau (at Mt. Uludag). Data used in comparisons were generated in previous studies. However, some re-analysis of data were also performed / (1) to improve the similarities of the parameters compared and (2) to be able to apply recently-developed methodologies to data sets. Data from Mediterranean and Black Sea stations were identical in terms of parameters measured and were suitable for extensive comparison. However, fewer parameters were measured at &Ccedil / ubuk and Uludag stations, which limited the comparisons involving these two stations. Comparison included levels of major ions and elements, short-term and seasonal variations in concentrations, background (baseline) concentrations of elements, flow climatology of regions, correlations between elements, potential source areas affecting regions, and source types affecting chemical composition of particles. Comparison of levels of measured parameters in four regions showed that there are some differences in concentrations that arise from differences in the local characteristics of the sampling points. For example very high concentrations of elements such as Na and Cl in the Mediterranean region is attributed to closer proximity of the Antalya station to coast and not a general feature of the Mediterranean aerosol. There are also significant regional differences in the concentrations of measured elements and ions as well. Concentrations of anthropogenic elements are very similar at two coastal stations (Antalya and Amasra), but they are approximately a factor of two smaller at the two stations that are located on the Anatolian Plateau. This difference between coastal and high altitude plateau stations, which is common to all anthropogenic species, is attributed to different source regions and transport mechanisms influencing coastal regions and Anatolian Plateau. Some statistically significant differences were also observed in the temporal variations of elements and ions measured in different stations. The elements with crustal origin showed similar seasonal pattern at all stations, with higher concentrations in summer and lower concentrations in winter. This difference between summer and winter is attributed to suppression of re-suspension of crustal aerosol from wet or ice-covered surface soil in winter. Concentrations of anthropogenic elements, on the other hand, did not show a statistically significant seasonal trend at Amasra, &Ccedil / ubuk and Uludag stations, but they have higher concentrations during summer months at the Antalya station. This difference between Mediterranean aerosol and aerosol at the Central and Northern Turkey is due to influence of more local sources on &Ccedil / ubuk, Amasra and Uludag stations and domination of more distant source in determining aerosol composition at the Mediterranean region. A similar conclusion of strong influence of local sources on chemical composition of particles at the Central Anatolia was also suggested by the comparison of baseline concentrations in each station. General features in flow climatology (residence times of upper atmospheric air masses) in each region are found to be similar with more frequent flow from W, WNW, NW and NNW wind sectors. Since these are the sectors that include high emitting countries in Eastern and Western Europe and Russia, transport from these sectors are expected to bring pollution from both distant European countries and more local Balkan countries and western parts of Turkey. Flow climatology in stations showed small, but statistically significant, differences between summer and winter seasons. These variations suggested that the station at the Central Anatolia and Black Sea (&Ccedil / ubuk Amasra and Uludag stations) are affected from sources located at the Western Europe in winter season and from sources located at the Eastern Europe in summer. Mediterranean aerosol, on the other hand, are affected from sources at the Western Europe and do not show any seasonal differences. This variation in flow climatology between summer and winter seasons (and lack of variation at the Mediterranean station) is supported by the seasonal variation (and lack of variation at the Mediterranean station) in SO42-/NO3- ratio measured at the stations. Potential source contribution function (PSCF) values are calculated for selected elements and ions in each station. Statistical significance of calculated PSCF values is tested using bootstrapping technique. Results showed that specific grids at Russia and at Balkan countries are common source regions affecting concentrations of anthropogenic elements at all four regions in Turkey. However, each station is also affected from specific source regions as well. Aerosol composition at the Anatolian Plateau are affected from sources closer to the sampling points whereas Mediterranean and Black Sea aerosol are affected from source regions that farther away from the receptors. It should be noted that the same conclusion is also reached in comparison of seasonal patterns and baseline concentrations at these stations. Types of sources affecting aerosol composition at Black Sea, Mediterranean and Central Anatolia are also compared. Source types affecting atmospheric composition in these regions were calculated using positive matrix factorization (PMF). The results showed that aerosol at the Black Sea, Central Anatolia and Mediterranean atmosphere consists of 8, 6 and 7 components, respectively. Two of these components, namely a crustal component and a long-range transport component are common in all three stations. The chemical compositions of these common components are shown to the same within 95% statistical significance interval. Three factors, namely a fertilizer factor, which is highly enriched in NH4+ ion, a sea salt component and an arsenic factor are common in the Mediterranean and Black Sea aerosol but not observed at the Central Anatolia. Other factors found in the regions are specific for that region.

"The sick body needs a doctor friend sick souls." (Menandros)