The research work presented in this thesis describes the development and testing of a new data analysis methodology for the automated near real-time detection and approximate location of pipe bursts and other events which induce similar abnormal pressure/flow variations (e.g., unauthorised consumptions, equipment failures, etc.) in Water Distribution Systems (WDSs). This methodology makes synergistic use of several self-learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) and statistical/geostatistical techniques for the analysis of the stream of data (i.e., signals) collected and communicated on-line by the hydraulic sensors deployed in a WDS. These techniques include: (i) wavelets for the de-noising of the recorded pressure/flow signals, (ii) Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for the short-term forecasting of future pressure/flow signal values, (iii) Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) for the selection of optimal ANN input structure and parameters sets, (iv) Statistical Process Control (SPC) techniques for the short and long term analysis of the burst/other event-induced pressure/flow variations, (v) Bayesian Inference Systems (BISs) for inferring the probability of a burst/other event occurrence and raising the detection alarms, and (vi) geostatistical techniques for determining the approximate location of a detected burst/other event. The results of applying the new methodology to the pressure/flow data from several District Metered Areas (DMAs) in the United Kingdom (UK) with real-life bursts/other events and simulated (i.e., engineered) burst events are also reported in this thesis. The results obtained illustrate that the developed methodology allowed detecting the aforementioned events in a fast and reliable manner and also successfully determining their approximate location within a DMA. The results obtained additionally show the potential of the methodology presented here to yield substantial improvements to the state-of-the-art in near real-time WDS incident management by enabling the water companies to save water, energy, money, achieve higher levels of operational efficiency and improve their customer service. The new data analysis methodology developed and tested as part of the research work presented in this thesis has been patented (International Application Number: PCT/GB2010/000961).

La problématique de l’élimination de l’excès d’ions fluorure présents dans les eaux de forage destinées à la consommation humaine peut être résolue en utilisant plusieurs méthodes. Dans cette thèse, les procédés testés sont : l’adsorption sur des particules d’os de seiche, l’adsorption sur des particules de calcite en présence d’acide acétique, la nanofiltration et l’échange d’ions. L’objectif est d’optimiser les différents procédés pour des solutions modèles en ions fluorure, puis de réaliser pour ces conditions optimales le traitement d’une eau de forage tunisienne. La concentration limite en ions fluorure imposée par la WHO est de 1.5 mg.L-1. Les essais d’adsorption en utilisant l’os de seiche, disponible en Tunisie, sont simples à mettre en œuvre et permettent des traitements à petite échelle avec des coûts très compétitifs en utilisant un matériau non toxique. La défluoration de l'eau souterraine avec l’os de seiche présente une concentration résiduaire en fluorure de 1,3 mg.L-1 (TR = 61,5%). Dans le cas de la précipitation des ions fluorures sous forme de fluorite suivi de microfiltration, l’addition d’acide acétique aux particules de calcite (CaCO3) favorise l’élimination des ions fluorure. La défluoration de l'eau souterraine montre que l’eau traitée présente une concentration résiduaire en fluorure de 1,24 mg.L-1 (TR = 53,7%). En utilisant une résine échangeuse d’ions Purolite A520E, la défluoration de l'eau souterraine montre que l’eau traitée présente une concentration résiduaire en fluorure de 1,2 mg.L-1 (TR = 54%). La nanofiltration permet de traiter des volumes importants d’eau et les taux de rétention des ions fluorure sont satisfaisants (88% et 57%) / The issue of the removal of excess fluoride ions present in well water for human consumption can be solved using several methods. In this PhD thesis, four processes have been tested: adsorption using cuttlefish bone particles, adsorption on calcite particles with acid acetic addition, nanofiltration and ion exchange. The aim is to optimize the different processes by using model solutions of fluoride ions, and to treat a Tunisian groundwater at these optimal conditions. The limiting concentration given by the WHO is 1,5 mg.L-1. The adsorption using cuttlefish bone, available in Tunisia, is simple to implement and provides treatment at small scale with very competitive costs by using a non-toxic material. Defluorination of groundwater shows that the water treated with cuttlefish bones has a residual fluoride concentration of 1.3 mg L-1 (TR = 61.5%). In the case of precipitation of fluoride ions in the form of fluorite followed by microfiltration, the addition of acetic acid to the particles of calcite (CaCO3) promotes the removal of fluoride. Defluorination groundwater shows that the treated water has a residual fluoride concentration of 1.24 mg L-1 (TR = 53.7 %). Using a ion exchange resin Purolite A520E, defluorination groundwater shows that water treated has a residual fluoride concentration of 1.2 mg L-1 (TR = 54%). Nanofiltration is particularly interesting as it allows the treatment of large volumes. The retention of fluoride ions are again satisfactory (88% and 57%)

Afin de limiter les impacts négatifs des rejets pluviaux urbains stricts (RPUS) sur l’hydraulique et la qualité des milieux naturels, des techniques alternatives sont mises en place. A Strasbourg (France,67), une mare de sédimentation suivie d’un filtre planté de roseaux à écoulement vertical collecte, stocke et traite les eaux de ruissellement d’un bassin versant résidentiel (2,7ha) depuis 5 ans. L’objectif de cette thèse est de (i) déterminer l’efficacité hydraulique et de traitement de la filière, (ii) évaluer les dynamiques de stockage des métaux et des hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques en temps de pluie et en temps sec, (iii) anticiper l’impact des variations climatiques sur l’efficacité de la filière, (iv) évaluer le comportement de sorption du cuivre, plomb et zinc dans le filtre et (v) modéliser les flux en entrée et en sortie de la filière. Trois années de suivi hydraulique, hydrologique et physico-chimique sur le site et 13 campagnes de prélèvement en temps pluie ont permis de montrer que les efficacités de la filière sont constantes au cours de l’année. Les RPUS sont caractérisés par de fortes concentrations en zinc, et les concentrations en micropolluants sont dépendantes de l’importance de la pluie. De plus, des expériences réalisées sur le sable du filtre (analyses chimiques, extractions séquentielles, expériences batch) ont montré que la rétention des métaux dans le filtre dépend du pH et de la concentration en métaux. Un modèle basé sur l’équation de Richards a été développé et permet de reproduire avec succès les écoulements verticaux 1D dans le filtre. / Stormwaters are identified as a major source of pollution for waterbodies. Particularly, metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in stormwater are known as the most toxic compounds for the fauna and flora. To limit the impact of these micropollutants on hydrosystems quality, stormwater constructed wetlands (SCW) have been built worldwide. This study aims i) to assess the efficiency of a 5-years-old SCW that combined a sedimentation pond followed by a vertical flow sand filter in urban area (Strasbourg 67, France), ii) to determine micropollutants storage in water and soils during dry period, (iii) to investigate the seasonality impacts on SCW performances, (iv) to evaluate copper, lead and zinc sorption behavior on the filter sand and (v) to model micropollutants and rain water fluxes from the catchment to the filter output. 3 years of on-site monitoring and 13 rain event sampling campaigns have shown that SCW hydraulic and treatment performances are constant over the year. Rain water is characterized by high loads of zinc and its micropollutants loads depend on the rain event depth. Then, chemical analyses, sequential extractions and batch experiments performed on the SCW substrate highlight that metals mobility in the filter is affected by pH and metal concentration. A model based on the Richard’s equation has been developed and predicts with success the 1-D vertical flow in the filter.

Les transferts latéraux de produits phytosanitaires en proche surface constituent une voie potentielle de contamination des eaux de surface dans certains contextes agro pédo climatique. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'apporter des éléments de connaissance et de compréhension de ces transferts. Un site viticole, dans le Nord Beaujolais, a ainsi été instrumenté avec une tranchée d'interception des écoulements latéraux, un canal Venturi et un réseau piézométrique. Cette instrumentation a ensuite été utilisée pour suivre les transferts latéraux et le ruissellement de produits phytosanitaires sur deux années viticoles. Enfin, une expérimentation de traçage in situ a été menée puis modélisée. Les résultats montrent une relation de seuil entre les volumes évènementiels d'écoulements latéraux captés, le degré de connectivité du versant, les volumes pluviométriques évènementiels, et l'humidité initiale du sol. La dynamique de transfert latéral des pesticides en proche surface s'est avérée très variable à l'échelle de l'évènement, mais en accord avec les propriétés physico chimiques des substances. À l'échelle de l'ensemble des évènements, les concentrations de ces produits dans l'écoulement latéral suivent une décroissance exponentielle temporelle. À l'échelle annuelle, la saisonnalité de l'écoulement latéral et du ruissellement semble expliquer la saisonnalité observée des transferts. L'expérimentation de traçage a permis d'identifier une composante préférentielle de l'écoulement latéral et une composante matricielle. La composante préférentielle a engendré des flux de substance significatifs et de concentrations élevées, mais fugaces. La composante matricielle a généré un flux de faible concentration, mais continu et de longue durée, qui a impliqué une contribution finale plus élevée que la composante préférentielle. Des liens explicatifs entre les propriétés des substances et ces composantes du transfert latéral ont pu être soulignés / Subsurface lateral flow may stand for a risky pathway in several agro pedo climatic contexts: in this way, the aim of this thesis work is to improve our understanding of pesticide transfer and dynamics by this pathway. A farmed vine plot, located on a hillslope in the Nord Beaujolais, was instrumented with a trench, a Venturi flume and a shallow groundwater well network. The instrumentation was used during two farming years to continuously monitor pesticide transfers in both subsurface lateral flows and surface runoff at a fine temporal resolution. Lastly, an in situ tracing experiment was conducted and modeled. Hydrological results highlighted a threshold relationship between subsurface lateral flow volumes measured in the trench, the degree of lateral connectivity of the hillslope, rainfall amounts and initial soil water content. The dynamics of these transfers was very variable at the event scale, and in agreement with the physico chemical properties of the substances. Considering all subsurface lateral flow events, pesticides concentrations were described using a decreasing exponential function depending on the time interval between a given event and the last application of the considered pesticides, and their physico chemical properties. At the year scale, the seasonality of pesticide transfers seemed related with the seasonality of subsurface lateral flow and surface runoff. The tracing experiment highlighted two components in subsurface lateral flow: a matrix related one and a preferential related flow component. The preferential component implied short, highly concentrated and significant lateral fluxes. Matrix related component produced continuous and slightly concentrated fluxes over a long period, and was responsible for a bigger part of the total transfer than the preferential component. Links between substance properties and transfer components were highlighted

Over the last couple of decades, a significant amount of research has been carried out on rural water supplies in developing countries, and have identified the fact that the communal water supply model is not sustainable everywhere, especially in sparsely populated rural areas; factors obstructing sustainability include lack of spare parts, management systems and private/public capacity. Despite their enormous contribution to the water sector, the extant studies stay within the subsidized communal water supply and capacity building, post construction support or management system. In other words, very few studies have been done into household (private) level water supply. The Self Supply model is an approach which provides support to households/communities to complement their efforts and accelerate sustainable access to safe water incrementally through improvement to traditional water sources (hand dug wells) by putting in their own investment. The Self Supply model may give significant benefits for sustainable safe water supplies, especially in sparsely populated rural areas, in comparison with the communal water supply though to date there has been little monitoring and systematic analysis of what impact these changes have made at the grassroots level. The standpoint of this study is pragmatic, and herein, mixing quantitative and qualitative methods was justified in order to design the research methodologies. The research was conducted in the Luapula Province of Zambia using a concurrent triangulation strategy to offset the weakness inherent within one method with the strengths of the other. The data was collected through inventory and sanitary surveys, water quality testing, household surveys, document analyses, focus group discussions and key informant interviews to determine the most appropriate water supply model for safe, accessible, sustainable, cost-effective and acceptable water supplies for households in sparsely populated rural areas of Zambia. The principal argument of this study is that reliance only on a communal water supply model limits the achievement of increased sustainable access to a safe water supply; hence a Self Supply model is needed which does not compete with the communal models but works alongside them in sparsely populated rural areas of developing countries for the purpose of increasing access and achieving sustainability. It was strongly defended by the overall findings that a Self Supply model could significantly reduce the faecal contamination risk in water quality and deliver a higher per capita water use and better convenience of access than the communal model; however its reliability with respect to the water source drying up needs to be monitored. Further, this does not mean that the communal model is not sustainable anywhere, rather that it is important to build blocks for a sustainable environment to access safe water in a symbiotic way between the communal and Self Supply models under the condition that the government and NGOs/external support agencies overcome the temptation to provide a water supply to rural dwellers as a giveaway social service.

Σε αυτήν την διπλωματική εργασία μελετήσαμε το σύστημα ελέγχου θερμοκρασίας και στάθμης νερού σε δεξαμενή. Αρχικά αναφέρουμε γενικά στοιχεία θεωρίας σχετικά με τον σχεδιασμό συστημάτων ελέγχου στον χώρο κατάστασης και πιο συγκεκριμένα αναλύουμε την μέθοδο ελέγχου με βάση την αυθαίρετη τοποθέτηση πόλων. Στην συνέχεια ασχολούμαστε μεμονωμένα με τον έλεγχο στάθμης νερού σε δεξαμενή. Περιγράφουμε το φυσικό σύστημα και την μονάδα ελέγχου την οποί α χρησιμοποιήσαμε στον χώρο του εργαστηρίου. Έπειτα από μια σειρά πειραμάτων τα οποία εκτελέσαμε και με βάση τις μετρήσεις τις οποίες πήραμε ,μπορέσαμε να υπολογίσουμε τα χαρακτηριστικά των επιμέρους ηλεκτρομηχανολογικών στοιχείων της πειραματικής μας διάταξης, όπως για παράδειγμα της αντλίας νερού, της μονάδας μέτρησης της στάθμης ,καθώς και τα χαρακτηριστικά της στατικής διεργασίας. Ομοίως πράξαμε και για τον έλεγχο θερμοκρασίας νερού σε δεξαμενή και έτσι μπορέσαμε να υπολογίσουμε τα χαρακτηριστικά του στοιχείου θέρμανσης. Στην συνέχεια, δίνουμε την περιγραφή του ολικού συστήματος ελέγχου στάθμης και θερμοκρασίας νερού σε δεξαμενή. Αφού εξάγουμε τις μαθηματικές εξισώσεις οι οποίες περιγράφουν το σύστημα στην μόνιμη κατάσταση, συμπεραίνουμε πως το σύστημα είναι μη γραμμικό. Σχεδιάζουμε το μη γραμμικό σύστημα στο Simulink και γράφοντας κατάλληλο κώδικα στο Matlab μπορέσαμε να γραμμικοποιήσουμε το σύστημά μας γύρω από ένα συγκεκριμένο σημείο λειτουργίας και το διακριτοποιήσαμε. Έπειτα, πάλι με την βοήθεια του λογισμικού προγράμματος Matlab σχεδιάσαμε έναν ελεγκτή με την μέθοδο τοποθέτησης πόλων και τον εφαρμόσαμε στο μη γραμμικό σύστημα για διάφορες τιμές πόλων και εξάγαμε τα συμπεράσματά μας από τα αντίστοιχα διαγράμματα όσων φορά την καλύτερη απόκριση του συστήματος. Την ίδια διαδικασία με παραπάνω εφαρμόσαμε και για ένα διαφορετικό σημείο λειτουργίας του συστήματος. / -

Résumé confidentiel / Résumé confidentiel

The overarching goal of this research is to establish a successful forum for a transition from the existing paradigm of managing wastewater infrastructure to a more sustainable paradigm that achieves a more efficient utilisation of wastewater assets. A transitioning approach to support a more efficient utilisation of surface water and wastewater assets and infrastructure is proposed and developed. The determined transitioning approach possesses key stages namely developing the arena, developing the agenda, case study, and monitoring. The case study stage investigates a drainage utility identifying their improvement drivers, the removal of surface water through detailed drainage modelling and the financial examination of the costs incurred under the various scenarios conducted. Understanding the implications of removing/attenuating surface water from the network is improved through obtaining data by detailed drainage modelling. Infoworks software is used to investigate and assess the current and future operational scenarios of a wastewater system operating over one calendar year. Modelling scenarios were conducted removing surface water from selected areas focusing on the volumes requiring pumping and durations of pumping station(s) operation prior to treatment during storm conditions. The financial implication of removing surface water in combined sewer systems is examined in three main components. Firstly the costs of electricity incurred at the single sewage pumping station (SPS) investigated during the various scenarios modelled require to be addressed. Secondly the costs to retrofit sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS) solutions needs to be identified. Thirdly the implications of removing surface water for the drainage utility at the national level and the potential saving for householder’s committing to a surface water disconnection rebate scheme. When addressed at the macro level i.e., with over 2,100 pumping stations, some operating in sequence and contained within one drainage utility annually treating 315,360 megalitres the significance of the same multiple quantifiable and intangible benefits becomes amplified. The research aims, objectives and findings are presented to the identified and convened stakeholders. The transitioning approach developed encourages positive discourse between stakeholders. The level of success of the transitioning approach determined is then tested using a quantitative methodology through the completion of questionnaires. From the questionnaires completed the respondents unanimously agreed that surface water flows should be removed as well as reduced from the combined sewer system. The respondents agreed that the removal of surface water from a typical combined sewer system is justified by applying a transitioning approach focusing on the energy consumption required to pump increased volumes during storm events. This response is significant based upon the economic evidence and is contrary to the respondents previous position that finance was their most influencing factor. When provided with other potentially available benefits the respondents were even more supportive of the justification to remove surface water from the combined sewer system. The combined findings of the work presented in this thesis provide further justification that the transitioning approach applied to the removal of surface water from a typical combined sewer system, as determined in this research has been successful.

Au Burkina Faso, l’un des soucis majeurs demeure la gestion des eaux usées et excréta. Dans l’optique de trouver une alternative à l’assainissement autonome (assainissement non collectif), des technologies biologiques rustiques par cultures fixées sur supports fins, destinées aux petites et moyennes collectivités ont été expérimentées. Le premier volet du travail expérimental à consister à évaluer les performances comparées du sable et des fibres de coco en traitement d’eaux résiduaires urbaines après un processus anaérobie par lagunage. Dans une deuxième étape, ont été évaluées les performances épuratoires de filtres plantés de Andropogon gayanus Kunth et Chrysopogon nigritana (Benth) Veldkamp deux poaceae des zones tropicales. Les abattements moyens d’élimination de la pollution biodégradable sont respectivement de 99% et 98% à la sortie du filtre à sable et de celui de substrat de coco. Cependant, il y a une DCO ajoutée due à l’extraction de composés phénoliques du substrat de coco qui occulte les performances réelles de ce support de culture. Toutefois, en l’absence d’une bonne nitrification au sein du massif de substrat de coco, contrairement au sable, nous avons relevé une élimination de l’azote sous forme d’ammonium avec un rendement de 75%. Par ailleurs, ce matériau végétal par sa structure très poreuse a montré une plus grande capacité à éliminer les sels minéraux comparativement au sable. Quant aux filtres plantés de Andropogon gayanus et Chrysopogon nigritana, si les deux pilotes ont assuré des abattements de plus de 97% de la DBO5, le premier a assuré un prélèvement plus important des nutriments (N et P). / In Burkina Faso, wastewater and excreta management in the urban and rural areas remains a big concern. In order to find an alternative to on-site sanitation by the exclusive use of excreta collecting system without treatment, extensive biological processes of wastewater treatment have been experimented. At first, the comparative performances of two materials (sand and coconut fibers) were evaluated in wastewater treatment. An anaerobic pond served as the primary treatment. Then in a second step, Andropogon gayanus Kunth and Chrysopogon nigritana (Benth) Veldkamp, two tropical Poaceae, were used to treat municipal wastewater by constructed wetlands. As results, average yields of eliminating biodegradable pollution were respectively 99% and 98% for the sand filter and the coconut fibers. However, there is an added COD due to the extraction of phenolic compounds contained in the coconut fibers. This masks the real performance of this material on the COD removal. Moreover, without good nitrification in coconut substrate, a removal of nitrogen in ammonium form with a yield of 75% was founded. Thanks to its very porous structure, coconut fibers showed a greater ability to remove minerals compared to sand. The two constructed wetlands have shown good removal efficiencies of organic pollution with values above 97% of BOD5. This was enhanced by the alternating phases of feeding and resting. For nutrients, the filter planted with Andropogon gayanus provided an important removal of N and P. Chrysopogon nigritana showed the drought resistance to evapotranspiration.

Distributed infrastructures (e.g., water networks and electric Grids) are difficult to manage due to their scale, lack of accessibility, complexity, ageing and uncertainties in knowledge of their structure. In addition they are subject to loads that can be highly variable and unpredictable and to accidental events such as component failure, leakage and malicious tampering. To support in-field operations and central management of these infrastructures, the availability of consistent and up-to-date knowledge about the current state of the network and how it would respond to planned interventions is argued to be highly desirable. However, at present, large-scale infrastructures are “data rich but knowledge poor”. Data, algorithms and tools for network analysis are improving but there is a need to integrate them to support more directly engineering operations. Current ICT solutions are mainly based on specialized, monolithic and heavyweight software packages that restrict the dissemination of dynamic information and its appropriate and timely presentation particularly to field engineers who operate in a resource constrained and less reliable environments. This thesis proposes a solution to these problems by recognizing that current monolithic ICT solutions for infrastructure management seek to meet the requirements of different human roles and operating environments (defined in this work as field and central sides). It proposes an architectural approach to providing dynamic, predictive, user-centric, device and platform independent access to consistent and up-to-date knowledge. This architecture integrates the components required to implement the functionalities of data gathering, data storage, simulation modelling, and information visualization and analysis. These components are tightly coupled in current implementations of software for analysing the behaviour of networks. The architectural approach, by contrast, requires they be kept as separate as possible and interact only when required using common and standard protocols. The thesis particularly concentrates on engineering practices in clean water distribution networks but the methods are applicable to other structural networks, for example, the electricity Grid. A prototype implementation is provided that establishes a dynamic hydraulic simulation model and enables the model to be queried via remote access in a device and platform independent manner.This thesis provides an extensive evaluation comparing the architecture driven approach with current approaches, to substantiate the above claims. This evaluation is conducted by the use of benchmarks that are currently published and accepted in the water engineering community. To facilitate this evaluation, a working prototype of the whole architecture has been developed and is made available under an open source licence.