Increased mutagenesis is a hallmark of cancers. On the other hand, this can trigger the generation of polymorphisms and lead to evolution. Lately, it has become clear that one of the major sources of increased mutation rates in the genome is chromosomal break formation and repair. A variety of factors can contribute to the generation of breaks in the genome. A paradoxical source of breaks is the sequence composition of the genomic DNA itself. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic genomes contain sequence motifs capable of adopting secondary structures often found to be potent inducers of double strand breaks culminating into rearrangements. These regions are therefore termed fragile sequence motifs. Here, we demonstrate that in addition to being responsible for triggering chromosomal rearrangements, inverted repeats and GAA/TTC repeats are also potent sources of mutagenesis. Repeat-induced mutagenesis extends up to 8 kb on either side of the break point. Remarkably, error-prone repair of the break by Polζ reconstitutes the repeats making them a long term source of mutagenesis. Despite its negative connotations for genome stability, the mechanisms underlying the unstable nature of double strand break repair pathways are not known. Previous studies have demonstrated that break induced replication (BIR), a mechanism employed to repair broken chromosomes with only one repairable end, is highly mutagenic, undergoes frequent template switching and often yields half-crossovers. In the work presented here, we show that the instabilities inherent to BIR can be attributed to its unusual mode of synthesis. We determined that BIR proceeds via a migrating bubble with long stretches of single-stranded DNA and culminates with conservative inheritance of the newly synthesized DNA. We propose that the mechanisms described here might be important for generation of repair-associated mutagenesis in higher organisms. Secondary structure forming repeats like inverted repeats have been found to be enriched in cancer cells. These motifs often constitute chromosomal rearrangement hot-spots and demonstrate the phenomenon of kataegis. This study provides a mechanistic insight into how such breakage-prone motifs contribute to hypermutability of cancer genomes.

Au cours des dernières décennies, les avancées techniques dans la biologie moléculaire telles que les projets de séquençage de génome ont eu pour conséquence un accroissement du volume des banques de données biologiques. Parmi ces données, des séquences présentent des motifs similaires entre eux, répétés de façon juxtaposée, appelés répétitions en tandem. L'objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre l'existence de ces répétitions dans les séquences protéiques via une analyse à grande échelle. / Over the last decades, technical advances in molecular biology such as the genome sequencing projects led to a huge increase of data in the biological databanks. Among them, there are particular motifs which are adjacently repeated and similar between them, called tandem repeats. The purpose of this thesis is to understand the existence of these repeats in protein sequences through a large-scale analysis.

No description available.

L’inactivation d’un des deux chromosomes X dans les cellules d’organismes femelles permet d’assurer un taux similaire des transcrits des gènes liés aux chromosomes X entre les deux sexes. L’ARN non codant Xist d’environ 17000 nts joue un rôle central dans ce processus. Il habille le futur chromosome X inactivé et induit la mise en place de modifications épigénétiques qui permettent d’éteindre l’expression des gènes. Une région d’approximativement 500 nts située à l’extrémité 5’ de l’ARN Xist est nécessaire à l’initiation de l’inactivation. Cette région appelée region des A-repeats contient 8 répétitions d’une séquence de 24 nucléotides. La délétion de cette région provoque un défaut d’inactivation, ce qui souligne son importance dans le processus. Etant donné que la fonction d’un ARN est bien souvent conditionnée par sa structure 2D, mon travail de thèse a consisté à réaliser l’étude expérimentale de la structure 2D de la région des A-repeats, ceci en utilisant des sondes de la structure secondaire des ARN en solution et une méthode de FRET. Nous avons montré que la région des A-repeats se structure selon 2 grandes structures tige-boucle irrégulières formées par l’appariement 2 à 2 des éléments répétés. Par purification des RNP et identification de leurs protéines, nous avons démontré que le complexe PRC2, impliqué dans la mise en place des marques épigénétiques du Xi, se lie à la région des A-repeats. Nous avons également identifié un grand nombre d’autres protéines pouvant avoir un rôle dans l’activité de la région des A-repeats (PTB, KSRP, Sam68, Vigiline, RHA, TIAR, DEK, H1, BRML1, Rod1, Lin28). Leurs implications dans l’inactivation du chromosome X est en cours de vérification. / Silencing of one X chromosome (XCI) in cells of mammalian female ensures sex chromosome dosage compensation between male and female. The 17kb Xist ncRNA plays an essential role in XCI. Its spread along the future inactivated X chromosome is associated with major modifications of the epigenetic status of this chromosome, including histone H3K27 methylations mediated by PRC2 complex. One key part of Xist necessary for XCI initiation is the phylogenetically conserved A region. It lies at the 5’ end of the Xist molecule and contains 8 of a 24-nucleotides motif. Female mouse embryos carrying a mutated Xist deleted for the A region are selectively lost during embryogenesis, which underlines the importance of this element. We performed the first experimental analysis of the structure of the entire A region in solution. By the use of chemical and enzymatic probes and FRET experiments, using oligonucleotides carrying fluorescent dyes, we established a 2D structure for the A region that contains two long stem-loop structures each including 4 repeats which interact together two by two. By immunoprecipitation assays and mass spectrometry analysis, we identified the protein partners of the A region. We demonstrated that the A region associate with PRC2 components which is responsible for the apposition of epigenetic modifications of X inactive chromosome. Others proteins which would have a role in A region function were also identified (PTB, KSRP, Sam68, Vigiline, RHA, TIAR, DEK, H1, BRML1, Rod1, Lin28).

L'inactivation du chromosome X correspond au silence transcriptionnel de l'un des deux chromosomes X dans les cellules des mammifères femelles. Il s'agit d'un mécanisme de compensation du dosage du chromosome X qui assure un taux d'expression des gènes liés aux chromosomes X équivalent entre organismes mâles (XY) et femelles (XX). Elle débute par une accumulation de l'ARN Xist (X inactive specific transcript) sur le chromosome X qui sera inactivé (Xi). Elle est suivie très rapidement par des modifications des histones qui assurent l'établissement, le maintien et la transmission de l'état transcriptionnel inactif de la chromatine. L'ARN Xist comprend plusieurs régions d'éléments répétés et notamment la région des A-repeats, essentielle pour la mise en place de l'inactivation. Mes recherches se sont portées sur l'étude de cette région singulière : sa structure et ses interactions protéiques. La technique de FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer) appliquée à l'ARN nous a permis de confirmer la structure de cette région parmi 3 modèles possibles. Elle se structure en deux tiges-boucles formée par l'appariement 2 à 2 de 4 répétitions successives. Dans une seconde partie, j'ai caractérisé l'interaction de cette région avec certains de ses partenaires protéiques in vitro. La région des A-repeats interagit notamment de manière directe avec les protéines PTB, KSRP et ASF/SF2. Les 2 premières protéines pourraient avoir un rôle dans la stabilité de l'ARN tandis qu'ASF/SF2 serait impliquée dans la maturation de l'ARN X / X-chromosome inactivation is the transcriptional silencing of one of the two X chromosomes in female mammal cells. This mechanism of dosage compensation ensures an equal level of the X-linked genes expression between males (XY) and females (XX). It initiates with the accumulation of the Xist RNA (X inactive specific transcript) on the futur inactive X chromosome (Xi). It is followed by the apposition of epigenetic marks such as histone modifications, that ensure establishment, maintenance and transmission of the inactive state of the chromatin. Xist RNA comprises a number of repeated regions and, in particular to its 5' end the A region, absolutely necessary for the establishment of the X-inactivation. My research was focused on the study of this singular region: its structure and its protein interactions. The FRET method (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer) applied to RNA allowed us to ascertain that the RNA is structured in two long stem-loop structures each including four repeats. In a second part, I characterized the in vitro interaction of this region with some of its protein partners. The A region interacts directly with PTB, KSRP and ASF/SF2 proteins. The first two proteins may have a role in RNA stability whereas ASF/SF2 could be involved in the splicing process

Wu, Feng. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 38-44). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Title Page --- p.i / Thesis Committee --- p.ii / Acknowledgment --- p.iv / Table of Contents --- p.v / List of Figures --- p.vii / List of Abbreviations and Symbols --- p.xi / Abstract (English version) --- p.xii / Abstract (Chinese version) --- p.xiii / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Significance of DNA CCTG repeats --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Objectives of this work --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- DNA structure --- p.3 / Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.5 / Chapter 2.1 --- Sample design --- p.5 / Chapter 2.2 --- Sample preparation --- p.5 / Chapter 2.3 --- NMR spectroscopy --- p.6 / Chapter 2.4 --- Resonance assignment --- p.7 / Chapter 3 --- NMR Structural Studies of (CCTG)3 --- p.9 / Chapter 3.1 --- Overview --- p.9 / Chapter 3.2 --- NMR resonance assignments --- p.9 / Chapter 3.3 --- Formation of two-residue CT-loop in the middle repeat of (CCTG)3 --- p.12 / Chapter 3.4 --- C-bulge and T.T mispair in (CCTG)3 hairpin stem region --- p.13 / Chapter 3.5 --- Summary --- p.15 / Chapter 4 --- NMR Structural Studies of (CCTG)4 --- p.16 / Chapter 4.1 --- Overview --- p.16 / Chapter 4.2 --- Conformational exchange in (CCTG)4 --- p.16 / Chapter 4.3 --- Formation of two-residue CT-loops in different repeats of (CCTG)4 --- p.17 / Chapter 4.4 --- Mutational studies of (CCTG)4 --- p.19 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Mutational studies on the 1st repeat of (CCTG)4: (CCTG)4-C2T --- p.19 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Mutational studies on the 2nd repeat of (CCTG)4：(CCTG)4-C6T --- p.21 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Mutational studies on the 3rd repeat of (CCTG)4：(CCTG)4-C 10T --- p.26 / Chapter 4.4.4 --- Mutational studies on the 4th repeat of (CCTG)4: (CCTG)4-C14T --- p.28 / Chapter 4.5 --- Summary --- p.33 / Chapter 5 --- Conclusions and Future Works --- p.35 / References --- p.38

Les répétitions en tandem sont constituées de successions de motifs d'ADN. Ces structures présentes dans tous les organismes, procaryotes comme eucaryotes, ont des applications dans de nombreux domaines. Depuis quelques années seulement, les répétitions en tandem sont étudiées chez les bactéries. Le polymorphisme associé à ces séquences peut être utilisé pour le génotypage de bactéries pathogènes, permettant une identification précise au niveau de la souche. Le polymorphisme des séquences répétées est de deux types : polymorphisme de longueur et mutations internes aux motifs. Les génomes des deux bactéries pathogènes responsables d'infections nosocomiales, Staphylococcus aureus et Pseudomonas aeruginosa, ont été étudiés dans le but d'identifier des séquences répétées polymorphes. Un ensemble de marqueurs polymorphes a été validé expérimentalement pour ces deux espèces permettant un typage dit MLVA (pour « Multiple Locus VNTR Analysis »). Le travail plus classique de typage par la taille de la répétition a été complété par un travail de séquençage de certains allèles. Les résultats obtenus montrent comment le typage « MLVA » complété si nécessaire par le séquençage d'allèles, pourraient constituer de nouvelles méthodes peu coûteuses participant au contrôle des infections bactériennes.

Abstract : A lossless compression algorithm often applies the same coding scheme on the whole sequence to be compressed. Therefore, some factors of the sequence are shortened while others are lengthened. In this work, we propose an optimization algorithm of compression methods which breaks off the coding where it is not profitable, so that some segments of the initial sequence are copied as they are instead of being coded. The achieved compression is said modular, meaning that the compressed sequence is a sequel of compressed segments and copied segments. Under specific hypotheses, our algorithm computes an optimal modular compression in time O(n log n) where n is the length of the sequence. We show that our optimization method can be advantageously used to analyze data, and particularly genetic sequences. The Kolmogorov complexity theory brings to light the usefulness of compression when analyzing sequences. The work consists of three parts. The first one introduces the classical concepts of compression and coding, as well as the new concept of ICL codes for the integers. The second one presents the compression optimization algorithm by liftings that uses ICL codes. Finally, the third part presents applications of the compression optimization by liftings, especially in the context of genetic sequence analysis. With the specific problem of the localization of approximate tandem repeats, we show how the compression optimization algorithm by liftings can be used to localize regular segments and irregular segments of a sequence in a precise and optimal way. This comeback to experimentation makes it possible to analyze sequences that contain several thousands of symbols within the space of a few seconds. /Résumé : Une méthode de compression sans perte d'informations applique souvent le même schéma de codage d'un bout à l'autre de la séquence à comprimer. Certains facteurs de la séquence sont ainsi raccourcis mais malheureusement d'autres sont rallongés. Dans ce travail, nous proposons un algorithme d'optimisation de compression qui rompt le codage là ou il n'est pas intéressant en recopiant des morceaux de la séquence initiale. La compression obtenue est dite modulaire : la séquence comprimée est une succession de morceaux comprimés et de morceaux recopiés tels quels. Sous certaines hypothèses, notre algorithme fournit une compression modulaire optimale en temps O(n log n) où n est la longueur de la séquence. Nous montrons que notre méthode de compression peut avantageusement être utilisée pour analyser des données et plus particulièrement des séquences génétiques. La théorie de la complexité de Kolmogorov éclaire l'idée d'analyse de séquences par compression. Le travail comporte trois parties. La première introduit les concepts classiques de compression et de codage, ainsi que le concept nouveau de codage ICL d'entiers. La seconde développe l'algorithme d'optimisation de compression par liftings qui utilise les codes ICL. La dernière partie présente des applications de l'optimisation de compression par liftings, plus particulièrement dans le domaine de l'analyse de séquences génétiques. Nous montrons, à l'aide du problème spécifique de localisation de répétitions en tandem approximatives, comment l'algorithme d'optimisation par liftings peut être utilisé pour localiser précisément et de manière optimale les segments réguliers et les segments non réguliers des séquences. Il s'agit d'un retour à l'expérience qui permet l'analyse de séquences de plusieurs centaines de milliers de bases en quelques secondes.

The knowledge of the three-dimensional structures of proteins and polypeptides is essential to understand their functions. The work shown in this thesis has two objectives. The first one is to develop a new analytical method based on maximum entropy (ME) theory to analyze NMR experimental data such as NOEs and J-couplings in order to reconstitute φ,ψ Ramachandran plots of flexible biomolecules. Two model systems have been used, the flexible polypeptide motilin and the disaccharide α-D-Mannosep-(1-2)-α-D-Mannosep-O-Me (M2M). The experimental data was defined as constraints that were combined with prior information (priors) which were the φ,ψ distributions obtained from either a coil library, the Protein DataBank or Molecular Dynamics Simulations. ME theory was utilized to formulate φ,ψ distributions (posteriors) that are least committed to the priors and in full agreement with the experimental data. Reparamerization of the Karplus relation was necessary to obtain realistic distributions for the M2M. Clear structural propensities were found in motilin with a nascent α-helix in the central part (residues Y7-E17), a left handed 31 helix in the C-terminus (R18-G21) and an extended conformation in the N-terminus. The contribution of each residue to the thermodynamic entropy (segmental entropy) was calculated from the posteriors and compared favorably to the segmental entropies estimated from 15N-relaxation data. For M2M the dominating conformation of the glycosidic linkage was found to be at φH=-40° ψH=33°, which is governed by the exo-anomeric effect. Another minor conformation with a negative ψH angle was discovered in M2M. The ratio between both populations is about 3:1. The second part of the thesis is a structural study of a DNA-binding protein, the C repressor of the P2 bacteriophage (P2 C). P2 C represses the lytic genes of the P2 bacteriophage, thereby directing the P2 lifecycle toward the lysogenic lifemode. The crystal and solution structures of P2 C have been solved by X-ray crystallography and NMR, respectively. Both structures revealed a homodimeric protein with five rigid α-helices made up by residues 5-66 and a β-strand conformation in residues 69-76 in each monomer. 15N-relaxation data showed that the C-terminus (residues 85-99) is highly flexible and fully unstructured. A model representing the P2 C-DNA complex was built based on the structure and available biochemical data. In the model, P2 C binds DNA cooperatively and two homodimeric P2 C molecules are close enough to interact and bind one direct DNA repeat each. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: In press. Paper 5: Manuscript.

PIDD has previously been described as a death domain (DD)-containing protein that is inducible upon p53 activation and plays a role in programmed cell death. It has previously been shown that PIDD interacts with RAIDD (RIP-associated ICE/CED3 homologous protein with a death domain) in a cytoplasmic complex known as the PIDDosome, which results in the activation of capsase-2 and ultimately in cell death in response to DNA damage. Despite earlier studies on PIDD, however, the physiological role of PIDD has not been elucidated. Thus, we have generated PIDD-deficient mice and examined its in vivo functions particularly in cell death and in antiviral innate immunity. The first major aim of the thesis is to determine whether or not PIDD is required in cell death. PIDD mice are developmentally normal and do not display a pronounced phenotype. Surprisingly, PIDD deficiency perturbed neither DNA damage-induced nor stress-induced cell death in a variety of cell types, suggesting that PIDD may not play a critical role in cell death. In addition, caspase-2 processing occurred normally in the absence of PIDD in response to ionizing irradiation or etoposide treatment, indicating that PIDD is dispensable in the cleavage of caspase-2. The second major aim is to examine the role of PIDD and RAIDD in LCMV-induced innate immunity. To study the role of PIDD and RAIDD in antiviral immune responses, I have generated PIDD/RAIDD double-deficient mice and challenged them with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Interestingly, I observed that ablation of both PIDD and RAIDD together resulted in defective viral clearance in the spleen, but not in other organs including the lung, liver, and kidney. In addition, the production of type I IFN was also decreased in the mice deficient in both PIDD and RAIDD. However, the cytotoxicity of the T lymphocytes was largely intact in the absence of both PIDD and RAIDD. Collectively, our results suggest that PIDD is dispensable in cell death, yet PIDD and RAIDD together have a synergistic effect in LCMV-induced antiviral innate immunity. The findings presented in this thesis provide a better understanding of the physiological role of PIDD and may ultimately contribute to the novel therapeutic strategies for the proper control of viral infection.