There are many major shipping companies which operate fleets comprised largely of vessels which are time chartered and subsequently sub-chartered on voyage terms. Legal risks will arise for the time charterer due the differing natures and terms of time and voyage charters. The essential question examined in this thesis is that of whether, and to what extent, legal risk can be minimized by the negotiation of equivalent contractual terms under time and voyage charter parties. The key areas addressed in this thesis are delivery under time charters compared to readiness under voyage charters, off hire under time charters versus suspension of laytime under voyage charters, obligations relating to cleanliness of cargo spaces, rights and responsibilities relative to safe berths and ports, the time charterer's position under bills of lading, and issues relating to redelivery of the vessel and consequent voyage charter liability if the vessel is unable to undertake the final voyage. The methodology applied is an examination of the case law, with a primary focus on the extensive body of English jurisprudence. This analysis of the case law is accompanied by a consideration of provisions of major charter party forms. The analysis leads to the conclusion that risk, to varying degrees, can be minimized through the application and clarification of contractual language. With respect to readiness of the vessel it is considered that risk will be reduced through agreeing contractual language which requires early notification of the vessel's delay. As regards off hire and laytime wording that clarifies non physical deficiencies is proposed. With regard to vessel cargo spaces intermediate cleanliness is identified as the greatest risk. Safe port and berth warranties are determined to represent an area of easily manageable risk, while letters of indemnity relating to bills of lading continue to represent very significant risk with suggested but no certain solution. Finally, with respect to redelivery a final voyage clause for time charters has been proposed which serves to almost eliminate risk in this area. Therefore, it is broadly concluded that risk can be managed but not eliminated through drafting of appropriate contractual terms.

This dissertation investigates how social order was created in the Swedish navy at the end of the Swedish imperial age (1670-1716).  During the period the Swedish navy went through many changes that led to an expanding and re-structuring of both the administration of the Admiralty and the naval activities. These changes contributed to shape the life on board ships and at shipyards in more fixed ways than before. The dissertation analyses the social order on the basis of three overlapping themes, inspired by Michel Foucault’s theories on power relationships and the exercise of power. First it investigates how the navy upheld its hierarchy and formed the relations between superior officers and subordinate men, second how the Admiralty and officers exercised power in order to make the subordinates behave in the desired way and third how the subordinates reacted to the control; especially how they formed different strategies of resistance to challenge or escape it. Using micro-history methodology, in-depth analyses have been made of individuals and situations mostly found in judicial cases from the navy’s own court (the admiralty court).     Social relations were however not only a result of naval control. They were also highly guided by social orders that existed in civil society. Thus naval rank emerged with marital status, age, experience and masculinity ideals into a complex and shifting hierarchy that was constantly questioned. The dissertation shows that upholding naval social order was dependent on the fact that the Admiralty and officers used both productive and repressive power strategies simultaneously. The naval order offered opportunities and careers to those who were obedient and skilful but could threaten the disobedient troublemaker with severe punishments. The order was also highly dependent on individual relations and situations. Since order primarily was challenged in face to face- situations the superiors had to devise power strategies to control those situations. By doing that they at the same time reduced all resistance to separate, single events and repeatedly rejected the slightest implication of any criticism towards the general social order. The power relations thus were a delicate theater were both superiors and subordinates pretended their actions meant something else than it did. From the point of view of the subordinates the social order always was about obligations and rights but from the superiors’ perspective social order basically was the main difference between chaos and control.

A distribuição, composição e alguns aspectos da variação temporal de grande escala da macrofauna bentônica da zona costeira rasa da baía do Almirantado já são conhecidos. O presente trabalho investigou a variação temporal de pequena escala da macrofauna, com ênfase nos Polychaeta, aos 20 metros de profundidade na enseada Martel. Foram feitas amostragens de sedimento, com um pegador de fundo tipo van Veen, em um mesmo ponto durante 35 dias, em intervalos aproximados de uma semana. Foram verificadas variações significativas na densidade de alguns grupos taxonômicos (Amphipoda e Polychaeta) e na composição granulométrica sedimentar. Bivalvia, Amphipoda, Cumacea e Oligochaeta, que vivem nas primeiras camadas do sedimento, constituíram um grupo sensível ao impacto causado por intensas tempestades. As espécies dominantes de Polychaeta (87% do total) foram Rhodine intermedia, Ophelina syringopige, O. gymnopyge, Apistobranchus glacierae e Tharyx cf. cincinnatus. Somente a densidade de O. gymnopyge apresentou variação significativa, o que não ocorreu com os descritores ecológicos do grupo. Estes resultados colaboram para o INCT-APA, fornecendo informações importantes para a interpretação dos dados obtidos no atual programa de monitoramento desenvolvido na baía do Almirantado. Este estudo integra o projeto do Ano Polar Internacional \"MABIREH\" e contribuirá para bases de dados \"SCAR-MarBin\" e \"ABBED\". / The distribution, composition and some aspects of long-term temporal variation of macrofauna from shallow waters of Admiralty Bay are reasonably well know. The present study aimed to investigate the short-term variation of macrofauna, with emphasis on Polychaeta, in Martel Inlet. Sediment was sampled, at 20 m depth, with a van Veen grab for approximately 35 days, almost every week. During the study period, significant variations were verified on the density of some taxa (Amphipoda and Polychaeta), as well as on the sediment composition. Bivalvia, Amphipoda, Cumacea and Oligochaeta at the first sediment layers were more susceptible to the impact of the severe storms. The dominant species of Polychaeta were Rhodine intermedia, Ophelina syringopyge, O. gymnopyge, Apistobranchus glacierae and Tharyx cf. cincinnatus, counting for 87% of the total group. The density of Ophelina gymnopyge presented a significant short-term variation, however, ecological descriptors for Polychaeta assemblages did not vary at the same way. These results collaborate to the INCT-APA, by providing important information to interpret the acquired data about the environmental monitoring program developed in Admiralty Bay. This study is part of the International Polar Year project \"MABIREH\" and will integrate \"SCAR-MarBin\" and \"ABBED\" data bases.

As concentrações de HPAs foram analisadas em invertebrados (Laternula elliptica, Nacella concinna, Yoldia eightsi, Glyptonotus antarcticus, Serolis polita, Euphausia superba, Bovalia gigantea, Sterechinus neumayeri, Odontaster validus e Ophionotus victoriae), peixes (Notothenia rossii), e aves (Pygoscelis Adélia, P. papua, P. antarcticus, Macronectes giganteus, Catharacta sp. e Larus dominicanus) da Baía do Almirantado. As análises de HPAs foram realizadas através de GC/MS. A ocorrência de HPAs nas amostras indicou a biodisponibilidade destes compostos para os organismos da região. As concentrações de HPAs totais para os invertebrados (3,09-174,4 ng g -1 pu) foram maiores que em peixes (0,97-58,9 ng g -1 pu) e menores que em aves (60,1-6861,0 ng g-1 pu), porém apresentaram similaridade entre si. As aves voadoras adultas apresentaram maiores concentrações que os pinguins. Compostos leves e alquilados predominaram em quase todas as amostras, principalmente os alquilnaftalenos. A principal fonte de HPAs para os organismos foi o DFA utilizado na EACF. Espécies predadoras/necrófagas apresentaram HPAs individuais diferentes das espécies suspensívoras/depositívoras. Não ocorreu relação entre o aumento da concentração de HPAs e o aumento do nível trófico dos grupos, e a absorção de HPAs pelas espécies sofreu a influência de fatores como metabolismo, fisiologia, hábito alimentar e teor de lipídio das espécies analisadas. / The concentrations of PAHs had been analyzed in invertebrates (Laternula elliptica, Nacella concinna, Yoldia eightsi, Glyptonotus antarcticus, Serolis polita, Euphausia superba, Bovalia gigantea, Sterechinus neumayeri, Odontaster validus and Ophionotus victoriae), fish (Notothenia rossii) and birds (Pygoscelis adélia, P. papua, P. antarcticus, Macronectes giganteus, Catharacta sp. and Larus dominicanus) Admiralty Bay. The analyses of HPAs had been carried through GC/MS. The occurrence of PAHs in the samples indicated the bioavailability of these compounds for the organisms of the region. The concentration of total PAHs for the invertebrates (3,09 to 174,4 ng g-1 pu) were higher than fish (0,97 to 58,9 ng g-1 pu) and lower than in birds (60,1- 6861,0 ng g-1 pu) however, they had presented similarity between themselves. The adult flying birds had presented higher concentrations than penguins. Light and alkylated compounds had predominated in almost all samples, mainly the alkylnaphthalenes. The main source of PAHs for the organism was the DFA used in the EACF. Predators/necrophagous species had presented different individual PAHs from the feeder/deposit species. There was no relation between the increase of concentrations of PAHs and the increase of the trophic level of the groups, and the absorption of PAHs for the species had the influence of factors such as metabolism, physiology, alimentary habits and lipid content of the analyzed species.

A distribuição, composição e alguns aspectos da variação temporal de grande escala da macrofauna bentônica da zona costeira rasa da baía do Almirantado já são conhecidos. O presente trabalho investigou a variação temporal de pequena escala da macrofauna, com ênfase nos Polychaeta, aos 20 metros de profundidade na enseada Martel. Foram feitas amostragens de sedimento, com um pegador de fundo tipo van Veen, em um mesmo ponto durante 35 dias, em intervalos aproximados de uma semana. Foram verificadas variações significativas na densidade de alguns grupos taxonômicos (Amphipoda e Polychaeta) e na composição granulométrica sedimentar. Bivalvia, Amphipoda, Cumacea e Oligochaeta, que vivem nas primeiras camadas do sedimento, constituíram um grupo sensível ao impacto causado por intensas tempestades. As espécies dominantes de Polychaeta (87% do total) foram Rhodine intermedia, Ophelina syringopige, O. gymnopyge, Apistobranchus glacierae e Tharyx cf. cincinnatus. Somente a densidade de O. gymnopyge apresentou variação significativa, o que não ocorreu com os descritores ecológicos do grupo. Estes resultados colaboram para o INCT-APA, fornecendo informações importantes para a interpretação dos dados obtidos no atual programa de monitoramento desenvolvido na baía do Almirantado. Este estudo integra o projeto do Ano Polar Internacional \"MABIREH\" e contribuirá para bases de dados \"SCAR-MarBin\" e \"ABBED\". / The distribution, composition and some aspects of long-term temporal variation of macrofauna from shallow waters of Admiralty Bay are reasonably well know. The present study aimed to investigate the short-term variation of macrofauna, with emphasis on Polychaeta, in Martel Inlet. Sediment was sampled, at 20 m depth, with a van Veen grab for approximately 35 days, almost every week. During the study period, significant variations were verified on the density of some taxa (Amphipoda and Polychaeta), as well as on the sediment composition. Bivalvia, Amphipoda, Cumacea and Oligochaeta at the first sediment layers were more susceptible to the impact of the severe storms. The dominant species of Polychaeta were Rhodine intermedia, Ophelina syringopyge, O. gymnopyge, Apistobranchus glacierae and Tharyx cf. cincinnatus, counting for 87% of the total group. The density of Ophelina gymnopyge presented a significant short-term variation, however, ecological descriptors for Polychaeta assemblages did not vary at the same way. These results collaborate to the INCT-APA, by providing important information to interpret the acquired data about the environmental monitoring program developed in Admiralty Bay. This study is part of the International Polar Year project \"MABIREH\" and will integrate \"SCAR-MarBin\" and \"ABBED\" data bases.

As concentrações de HPAs foram analisadas em invertebrados (Laternula elliptica, Nacella concinna, Yoldia eightsi, Glyptonotus antarcticus, Serolis polita, Euphausia superba, Bovalia gigantea, Sterechinus neumayeri, Odontaster validus e Ophionotus victoriae), peixes (Notothenia rossii), e aves (Pygoscelis Adélia, P. papua, P. antarcticus, Macronectes giganteus, Catharacta sp. e Larus dominicanus) da Baía do Almirantado. As análises de HPAs foram realizadas através de GC/MS. A ocorrência de HPAs nas amostras indicou a biodisponibilidade destes compostos para os organismos da região. As concentrações de HPAs totais para os invertebrados (3,09-174,4 ng g -1 pu) foram maiores que em peixes (0,97-58,9 ng g -1 pu) e menores que em aves (60,1-6861,0 ng g-1 pu), porém apresentaram similaridade entre si. As aves voadoras adultas apresentaram maiores concentrações que os pinguins. Compostos leves e alquilados predominaram em quase todas as amostras, principalmente os alquilnaftalenos. A principal fonte de HPAs para os organismos foi o DFA utilizado na EACF. Espécies predadoras/necrófagas apresentaram HPAs individuais diferentes das espécies suspensívoras/depositívoras. Não ocorreu relação entre o aumento da concentração de HPAs e o aumento do nível trófico dos grupos, e a absorção de HPAs pelas espécies sofreu a influência de fatores como metabolismo, fisiologia, hábito alimentar e teor de lipídio das espécies analisadas. / The concentrations of PAHs had been analyzed in invertebrates (Laternula elliptica, Nacella concinna, Yoldia eightsi, Glyptonotus antarcticus, Serolis polita, Euphausia superba, Bovalia gigantea, Sterechinus neumayeri, Odontaster validus and Ophionotus victoriae), fish (Notothenia rossii) and birds (Pygoscelis adélia, P. papua, P. antarcticus, Macronectes giganteus, Catharacta sp. and Larus dominicanus) Admiralty Bay. The analyses of HPAs had been carried through GC/MS. The occurrence of PAHs in the samples indicated the bioavailability of these compounds for the organisms of the region. The concentration of total PAHs for the invertebrates (3,09 to 174,4 ng g-1 pu) were higher than fish (0,97 to 58,9 ng g-1 pu) and lower than in birds (60,1- 6861,0 ng g-1 pu) however, they had presented similarity between themselves. The adult flying birds had presented higher concentrations than penguins. Light and alkylated compounds had predominated in almost all samples, mainly the alkylnaphthalenes. The main source of PAHs for the organism was the DFA used in the EACF. Predators/necrophagous species had presented different individual PAHs from the feeder/deposit species. There was no relation between the increase of concentrations of PAHs and the increase of the trophic level of the groups, and the absorption of PAHs for the species had the influence of factors such as metabolism, physiology, alimentary habits and lipid content of the analyzed species.

La guerre de course européenne connaît son apogée au XVIIIe siècle, en particulier durant la guerre de Succession d’Espagne (1701-1713). Cette activité a des répercussions jusque dans les colonies, qui sont éventuellement dotées des institutions nécessaires au jugement des prises ramenées par les corsaires, les amirautés. Le fonctionnement de ces dernières est géré par l’Ordonnance de la Marine de 1681, autant en France que dans les colonies françaises. Alors que le jugement des prises en métropole a été l’objet d’étude de quelques auteurs, il n’y a pas d’étude qui explore en détail ce sujet dans les colonies. Ce mémoire pose alors la question suivante : comment se déroule le jugement des prises dans les amirautés coloniales au XVIIIe siècle, plus précisément de 1690 à 1760 dans les ports de Plaisance, Québec et Louisbourg ? Pour répondre à cette question, les réponses de l’Amiral de la sous-série G5 ont permis la construction d’un portrait statistique préliminaire pour commencer à faire ressortir les éléments qui caractérisent les procédures des amirautés coloniales (chapitre 1). Ensuite, les procès-verbaux du port de Plaisance ont servi à reconstituer en détail ces procédures et à identifier les similarités et les différences avec les procédures menées dans la métropole (chapitre 2). Finalement, on a voulu chiffrer l’importance des jugements relatifs à la course dans la charge des amirautés dans son ensemble. Pour cela, on s’est appuyé sur le fonds de l’amirauté de Québec et de Louisbourg et le fonds d’archives notariés de Plaisance. Cette analyse nous a permis de voir le rôle de l’amirauté dans chaque port, un rôle fortement influencé par le caractère socio-économique et géographique du port (chapitre 3). Ce qui ressort de l’étude, c’est la similarité des procédures suivies dans les amirautés coloniales par rapport à leurs homologues métropolitains ainsi que l’adaptation de certaines caractéristiques au contexte colonial. / Privateering was at its all-time high in the eighteenth century, specifically during the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713). The increase in this activity had particular consequences in the colonies and, in fact, precipitated the foundation of the first admiralty in French North America, at Plaisance. Colonial admiralties were to follow the instructions of the Ordonnance de la Marine of 1681, just like their French counterparts. While there are a few studies of the judgement of prizes in metropolitan admiralties, there are no studies that examine in detail how this procedure unfolded in colonial admiralties. This thesis asks, therefore, the following question: how did the colonial admiralties judge prizes in the eighteenth century, specifically from 1690 to 1760, in the ports of Plaisance, Québec and Louisbourg? To answer this question, the responses of the Admiral of France in the subseries G5 were used to make a preliminary statistical portrait to illuminate the main characteristics of captured prizes and their adjudication in the colonies (chapter 1). Then, records of proceedings of the Admiralty of Plaisance from the subseries G5 were used to reconstitute the judgement of prizes in detail and to identify the similarities and differences between colonial and metropolitan adjudication. Finally, in order to better understand the place of privateering in the admiralty’s overall activity, we examined how the volume of these cases compared to that of other types before the same institution. To do so, we consulted the fonds de l’amirauté de Québec and the fonds de l’amirauté de Louisbourg, with the notarized records of Plaisance. This analysis allowed us to see the particular role played by the admiralty in each port, a role shaped by the latter’s socioeconomic and geographic character (chapter 3). Main findings of the study include the similarity in procedures in metropolitan and colonial admiralties as well as the specific adaptations that were made to the colonial context.

An increase in international trade has resulted in an increase in the carriage of goods by sea, which has also promoted the business of marine insurance on a very huge scale. Marine insurance contracts fall within both the admiralty jurisdiction where admiralty laws apply and special contract law where the rules and principles of contract law apply. In certain circumstance this has left the courts with a dilemma in deciding in particular cases which law should apply; whether maritime law, contract law or marine insurance law. There are certain principles under the law of contract that are said to be profound and cannot be ousted easily by substantive law. The principle of party autonomy is one of these principles and it has gained international recognition through a number of cases. However, to date, courts are faced with difficulties in deciding whether to uphold the choice of law on jurisdiction and governing law exercised by parties or resort to substantive law, either by virtue of admiralty law or any other statutes in a country, which provisions may be contrary to the clause on choice of law under the contract. In South Africa practice has shown that courts are always reluctant to apply the clause on choice of law if they believe such application is against the public policy and interest in South Africa. This begs the question as to the precise meaning and effect of “public policy and interest” and how this principle influences the long-standing and well-established principle of party autonomy in admiralty jurisdiction. This dissertation is aimed at providing a legal response to this problem by analysing case law and the different viewpoints of various writers. It is imperative to investigate if their decisions and views answer all the uncertainties with regard to the meaning and the effect of the concept of “public policy and interest” on the principle of party autonomy. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

An increase in international trade has resulted in an increase in the carriage of goods by sea, which has also promoted the business of marine insurance on a very huge scale. Marine insurance contracts fall within both the admiralty jurisdiction where admiralty laws apply and special contract law where the rules and principles of contract law apply. In certain circumstance this has left the courts with a dilemma in deciding in particular cases which law should apply; whether maritime law, contract law or marine insurance law. There are certain principles under the law of contract that are said to be profound and cannot be ousted easily by substantive law. The principle of party autonomy is one of these principles and it has gained international recognition through a number of cases. However, to date, courts are faced with difficulties in deciding whether to uphold the choice of law on jurisdiction and governing law exercised by parties or resort to substantive law, either by virtue of admiralty law or any other statutes in a country, which provisions may be contrary to the clause on choice of law under the contract. In South Africa practice has shown that courts are always reluctant to apply the clause on choice of law if they believe such application is against the public policy and interest in South Africa. This begs the question as to the precise meaning and effect of “public policy and interest” and how this principle influences the long-standing and well-established principle of party autonomy in admiralty jurisdiction. This dissertation is aimed at providing a legal response to this problem by analysing case law and the different viewpoints of various writers. It is imperative to investigate if their decisions and views answer all the uncertainties with regard to the meaning and the effect of the concept of “public policy and interest” on the principle of party autonomy. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Em fevereiro de 2012 um incêndio atingiu a Estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz (EACF), consumindo cerca de 70% das instalações, liberando diversos compostos para o meio ambiente. Desde então, processos de remoção de resíduos vêm sendo realizados. Com base no cenário de efeitos ambientais em um ambiente antártico, amostras de solo e sedimento foram coletadas em diferentes períodos pós-acidente a fim de se avaliar os efeitos do incêndio. As amostras foram tratadas através de digestão ácida e as concentrações parciais de metais e As foram quantificadas através de ICP-OES. O Fator de Enriquecimento foi utilizado para avaliação dos impactos causados no solo, enquanto que comparação com os valores estabelecidos pela legislação canadense (TEL e PEL) foi utilizada na avaliação do grau de contaminação do sedimento. Os resultados indicaram a introdução de Pb, Cu e Zn antropogênico em parte das amostras de solo coletadas ao redor da antiga estação antártica, cujos Fatores de Enriquecimento chegaram a, respectivamente, 208,9; 189,7 e 111,6; sendo estes presentes sob a forma de fragmentos metálicos. Também indicaram que os processos de remoção de resíduos podem ter sido tanto responsáveis pela redução nos teores de metais, como por ter reintroduzido estes elementos em outros pontos mobilizando-os durante a movimentação de resíduos. Além disso, não foram encontradas evidências de alterações significativas nos teores de Hg em solo e metais e As em sedimento marinho. / In February 2012, a fire at the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (EACF) destroyed approximately 70% of the Brazilian research station. This event released many substances and residues to the region and, since then, operations for the removal of the fire wastes have been executed. Based on the scenario of environmental effects on an Antarctic environment, soil and sediment samples were collected in several different moments after the accident to study the impacts of the fire. The samples were treated through acid digestion and the partial levels of metals and As were quantified through ICP-OES. Enrichment factor was used to evaluate the impacts caused in soils, and comparisons with Canadian environmental quality guidelines (TEL and PEL) were used to assess the intensity of the sediment contamination. The results indicated the introduction of anthropogenic Cu, Pb and Zn in some of the collected soil samples around the former Antarctic station, with enrichment factors of 189.7, 208.9 and 111.6, respectively, elements those present in metallic fragments. Moreover, the analysis of the generated data showed that the procedures for wastes removal could have been responsible for the decrease in the elements\' content as well as the reintroduction of those elements due to the mobilization of the wastes in some of the sampled sites. Furthermore, there\'s no evidences of significate changes on Hg levels in soil or metal and As levels in marine sediment.