Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is an emerging infectious disease found in both livestock and humans. RVF is associated with high abortion and mortality rates in livestock and can be fatal in humans. As such, RVF is economically and socially significant to affected smallholder and subsistence farmers, those infected, and national livestock industries. However, Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) vaccines are not commercially available outside of endemic areas or for humans, and current vaccines are limited in their safety and efficacy. A plant-based, viral nanoparticle vaccine offers a more affordable alternative to conventional vaccines that is safe, rapidly producible, and easily scalable, better meeting the needs of impacted communities. This project focuses on assessing the potential of using a Nicotiana benthamiana plant expression system to generate recombinant tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) nanoparticles displaying RVFV glycoprotein epitopes. Eight TMV-RVFV glycoprotein constructs were designed. Five TMV-RVFV constructs were successfully cloned, and four recombinant TMV constructs were successfully expressed in planta. The antigenicity of these constructs was examined for their possible use in RVFV vaccine development.

Abstract not available

Barley is one of the most important crop species in Turkey and powdery mildew is one of the most common pathogen decreasing yield in barley. For this problem, agricultural biologists apply breeding technologies in order to select and propagate resistant barley cultivars. However, this is not a permanent solution since pathogens evolve rapidly to overcome plant resistance mechanisms. On the other hand, molecular plant pathologists are trying to understand basic mechanisms underlying plant-pathogen interactions by using molecular tools in order to develop long term solutions for preventing yield loss. In this thesis, miR159 mediated regulation of barley GAMyb transcription factor is studied. According to microRNA microarray results regarding to infection with powdery mildew pathogen Blumeria graminis f.spp hordei (Bgh) at different time points, miR159 expression level showed significant differences. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that miRNA159 targets GAMyb gene in barley. In order to investigate this relationsh&amp / #8223 / p, both miRNA and miRNA target were cloned into GFP containing expression vectors through Gateway cloning and resulting vectors were transformed into Nicotiana benthamiana through Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer. Observations based on GFP expression showed that miRNA159 targets and decreases the expression of GAMyb in vivo. v To conclude, this study can be evaluated as a distinctive study for two aspects / (i) it is the first study assessing a &ldquo / putative&rdquo / barley miRNA function biologically and (ii) developed a practical and effective functional assay for miRNA studies in plants.

Agrobacterium are Alphaproteobacteria common in most soils that closely interact with plants in two respects. Firstly, they are rhizospheric bacteria saprophytically living in the rhizosphere of numerous plants and they are likely beneficial to plants. Secondly, when they harbor a dispensable Ti plasmid (i.e. tumor inducing plasmid), agrobacteria are plant pathogens able to cause the crown gall disease to most dicots and gymnosperms and some monocots. An epidemiological survey of crown gall thus also requires expert determination of the Agrobacterium taxonomy. In this thesis we evaluated the usefulness of MALDI-TOF MS technique as a high throughput tool to determine and classify agrobacteria. Then we set up a recA-based PCR method to accurately and exhaustively assess agrobacterial diversity either of isolated agrobacteria or directly in various biotopes. We applied standard biochemical, recA-based and Ti plasmid-based identification methods to study the prevalence of pathogenic and non-pathogenic agrobacteria at the country and local scales. Finally, we tested whether analyzing the internal composition of recA amplicons could be a way to directly assess the micro-diversity of agrobacterial populations using cloning sequencing or pyrosequencing approaches. The later methodology was applied to establish the actual field diversity of Agrobacterium and to evaluate whether plant genotypes differentially select agrobacteria in their root systems, providing first data upon biotic factors shaping the population structure of agrobacteria

Thesis (MSc (Genetics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigated the use of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as possible source of resistance against a range of pathogens in grapevine. Whilst the ultimate aim would be to express AMPs in grapevine, the development of transgenic grapevine is time consuming and therefore pre-screening of potential AMPs is necessary. These small molecules, of less than 50 amino acids in length, are expressed by almost all organisms as part of their non-specific defence system. In vitro pre-screening of AMP activity is valuable but is limited since the activity on artificial media may differ from the AMP activity in planta. These tests are also restricted to pathogens which can be cultured in vitro. These limitations can be overcome by using transient expression systems to determine the in planta activity of AMPs against pathogens of interest. In this study transient systems were used to express AMPs in developed plant tissue to test their efficacy against grapevine pathogens such as Agrobacterium vitis, Xylophilus ampelinus and aster yellows phytoplasma. Aster yellows phytoplasma, which was recently discovered in local vineyards, is known to cause extensive damage and therefore pose a great threat to the South African grapevine industry. To study the in planta effect of AMPs against the abovementioned pathogens, transient expression vectors were constructed expressing either of the AMPs D4E1 or Vv-AMP1. D4E1 is a synthetically designed AMP known to be active against bacteria and fungi, while Vv-AMP1, isolated from grapevine berries, has already shown activity against fungi. In a transient approach in grapevine, the expression of foreign genes from viral and non-viral vectors was confirmed by expression of the marker genes β-glucuronidase and Green Fluorescent Protein, while tissue-printing immunoassays confirmed viral replication and systemic spread in Nicotiana benthamiana. The viral vectors were based on the phloem-limited virus grapevine virus A. Only Agrobacterium-mediated 35S transient expression vectors were used for AMP in planta activity screening since the viral-mediated expression in grapevine was insufficient for screening against A. vitis and X. ampelinus as it was restricted to phloem tissues after whole-leaf infiltration. No phytoplasma-infected material could be established and as a result AMP activity screening was only performed against the A. vitis and X. ampelinus. Quantification of the bacteria was performed by qPCR. Vv-AMP1 did not show activity against either of the two bacteria in planta while D4E1 was found to be active against both. The observed in planta activity of D4E1 correlated with the in vitro activity as measured in an AMP plate bioassay. In contrast to in vitro screenings, the in planta AMP activity screening might give a more accurate representation of the potential antimicrobial activity of the peptide in a transgenic plant environment. This study proved that transient expression systems can be used as a pre-screening method of AMP activity in planta against grapevine pathogens, allowing the screening of various AMPs in a relatively short period of time before committing to transgenic grapevine development. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie het die gebruik van antimikrobiese peptiede (AMPe) as 'n moontlik bron van weerstand teen 'n reeks van patogene in wingerd ondersoek. Alhoewel die uiteindelike doel sal wees om AMPe uit te druk in wingerd, is transgeniese wingerd ontwikkeling tydrowend en daarom is vooraf evaluering van potensiële AMPe nodig. Hierdie klein molekules, van minder as 50 aminosure in lengte, word uitgedruk deur amper alle organismes as deel van hul nie-spesifieke verdedigingsisteem. In vitro vooraf evaluering van AMP aktiwiteit is van waarde, maar is beperk aangesien die aktiwiteit op kunsmatige media mag verskil van die AMP-aktiwiteit in planta. Hierdie toetse is ook beperk tot patogene wat in vitro gekweek kan word. Hierdie beperkinge kan oorkom word deur gebruik te maak van tydelike uitdrukkingsisteme om die in planta aktiwiteit van AMPe te bepaal teen patogene van belang. In hierdie studie is tydelike uitdrukkingsisteme gebruik om AMPe uit te druk in ontwikkelde plantweefsel om hul effektiwiteite te toets teen wingerdpatogene soos Agrobacterium vitis, Xylophilus ampelinus en aster yellows fitoplasma. Aster yellows fitoplasmas, wat onlangs in plaaslike wingerde ontdek is, is bekend vir die uitgebreide skade wat hul aanrig en hou daarom 'n groot bedreiging in vir die Suid-Afrikaanse wingerd industrie. Om die in planta effek van AMPe teen die bogenoemde patogene te bestudeer is tydelike uitdrukkingsvektore ontwikkel wat die AMPe D4E1 of Vv-AMP1 uitdruk. D4E1 is 'n sinteties-ontwerpte AMP wat aktief is teen bakterieë en fungi, terwyl Vv-AMP1, wat uit druiwekorrels geïsoleer is, alreeds aktiwiteit teen fungi getoon het. In 'n tydelike uitdrukkingsbenadering in wingerd is die uitdrukking van transgene, vanaf virus of nie-virus gebaseerde vektore, bevestig deur die uitdrukking van die merker gene β-glukuronidase en die Groen Fluoresserende Proteïen, terwyl weefsel afdrukkings-immunotoetse virus replisering en sistemiese beweging in Nicotiana benthamiana bevestig het. Die virusvektore was gebaseer op die floëem-beperkte virus, wingerdvirus A. Slegs Agrobacterium-bemiddelde 35S tydelike uitdrukkingsvektore is gebruik om die AMP in planta aktiwiteit te bepaal aangesien die virus-bemiddelde uitdrukking in wingerd onvoldoende was vir evaluering teen A. vitis en X. ampelinus weens die beperking tot die floëem weefsel na infiltrering van die totale blaar. Geen fitoplasma geïnfekteerde materiaal kon gevestig word nie, en daarom is AMP aktiwiteitsevaluering slegs teen A. vitis en X. ampelinus uitgevoer. Kwantifisering van die bakterieë is deur middel van qPCR uitgevoer. Vv-AMP1 het geen aktiwiteit getoon teen enige van die bakterieë in planta nie, terwyl D4E1 aktief was teen beide. Die waargenome in planta aktiwiteit van D4E1 het ooreengestem met die in vitro aktiwiteit soos bepaal deur 'n AMP plaat bio-toets. In kontras tot in vitro evaluering kan die in planta AMP-aktiwiteit evaluering 'n meer akkurate voorspelling bied van die potensiële antimikrobiese aktiwiteite van die peptied in 'n transgeniese plant omgewing. Hierdie studie het bewys dat tydelike uitdrukkingsisteme gebruik kan word as 'n voorafgaande evalueringsmetode vir AMP in planta aktiwiteit teen wingerdpatogene, wat die evaluering van 'n verskeidenheid AMPe in 'n relatiewe kort tydperk toelaat voor verbintenis tot die ontwikkeling van transgeniese wingerd.

Potato is one of the main targets for genetic improvement by gene transfer. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of genetic transformation of potato, cultivar Bintje, using two methods: Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation and microprojectile bombardment. The same plasmid p35SGUSint, which cosists of 35S CaMV promoter, gus and nptII genes, was used for both transformations of internodal potato explants. Kamamycin selection, transient and stable expressions of {$\beta$}-glucuronidase and PCR amplification of gus and nptII transgenes were used for transgenic plant selection, identification and analysis.

Currently we can do genetic manipulation by means of direct and indirect methods. Indirect methods use strategy of gram-negative soil bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which introduces part of its own genes carried by the section of plasmid Ti called T-DNA into the genome of infected plants. It is difficult to reach the transformation of monocotyledonous plants using this method. Application of direct methods of transformation offers the possibility for transformation of monocotyledonous plants. One of the most effective methods of direct transformation is biolistic transformation. This diploma thesis dealt with the comparison of efficacy of biolistic and A. tumefaciens mediated transformation of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.).

A transformação genética pode contribuir substancialmente para o melhoramento genético do feijão, permitindo a introdução de genes que contribuam para o aumento da produtividade e estabilidade da produção. A metodologia de transformação genética de feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris), ora disponível (biobalística em embriões) apresenta baixa eficiência, o que dificulta o seu uso em pesquisas envolvendo a transferência de genes e não permite seu uso de forma ampla em programas de melhoramento genético da cultura. Um método efetivo e reprodutível de regeneração de plantas, a partir de células ou tecidos, é essencial em estudos de genética e melhoramento envolvendo a transferência de genes pela engenharia genética. Os métodos de transformação somente terão sucesso se tivermos previamente estabelecido um protocolo eficiente de regeneração de plantas a partir de tecidos potencialmente transformáveis. O objetivo principal deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento de um protocolo de transformação genética de feijão via Agrobacterium. O primeiro passo no desenvolvimento deste protocolo foi o estabelecimento de um sistema eficiente de regeneração de plantas a partir de calos. O passo seguinte foi o estabelecimento de metodologia da transformação de calos via Agrobacterium. / The genetic transformation can contribute substantially with the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) breeding, allowing the introduction of genes to improve productivity and its stability. The transformation methodology of bean, now available (biolistic in embryos), is not efficient, which prevents its use in bean breeding programs. A reproducible and effective method of plant regeneration, from cells or tissues is essential in genetics studies and plant breeding, involving the genetic engineering. The transformation methods will only work if we can previously establish an efficient plant regeneration protocol from tissues with potential for transformation. The aim of this work was to develop an efficient transformation protocol of bean via Agrobacterium. The first step was to establish an efficient system of plant regeneration from callus, followed by the establishment of a transformation methodology via Agrobacterium.

A transformação genética está se tornando uma importante ferramenta, dentro dos programas de melhoramento genético de citros, e uma alternativa para contornar barreiras naturais da espécie, que dificultam o desenvolvimento de novas variedades pelo melhoramento convencional. Entretanto, os protocolos utilizados para transformação genética de citros têm resultado num baixo número de plantas transgênicas. Com o objetivo de estudar fatores que possam influenciar o processo de transformação genética de citros via Agrobacterium tumefaciens analisou-se o efeito do uso de acetoseringona em diferentes etapas do processo, as condições de incubação dos explantes durante e após o período de co-cultivo e o tipo de corte do explante. Foram utilizados segmentos de epicótilo de plântulas germinadas in vitro da variedade de laranja doce ‘Hamlin’ (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck.) e da variedade citrange ‘Carrizo’ (C. sinensis x Poncirus trifoliata Raf.), inoculados com a estirpe EHA 105 de A. tumefaciens, contendo o plasmídeo p35SGUSINT, com o gene de seleção que codifica a enzima neomicina fosfotransferase II (nptII) e o gene repórter uidA que codifica a enzima b-glucuronidase (gus). O protocolo básico para transformação genética foi com a inoculação dos explantes por 20 minutos, com o período de co-cultivo de 3 dias em me io de cultura suplementado com acetoseringona (100 mM) e transferidos para meio de cultura de seleção, constituído de meio de cultura EME, suplementado com BAP (1mg L -1 ), canamicina (100 mg L -1 ) e cefotaxime (500 mg L -1 ). As avaliações foram realizadas após 5-6 semanas de incubação, determinando-se o número de explantes com gemas adventícias, o número de gemas adventícias gus + e calculando-se a eficiência de transformação genética, definida pela relação entre o número de gemas gus + regeneradas e o número de explantes inoculados. Pelos resultados obtidos pôde-se observar uma maior eficiência de transformação genética para a variedade citrange ‘Carrizo’; e que a eficiência da transformação genética aumentou, principalmente para a variedade de laranja doce 'Hamlin', quando a incubação do material durante o período de co-cultivo foi feita sob temperaturas inferiores a 27 °C. A suplementação do meio de cultura de co-cultivo com acetoseringona depende do pH deste meio de cultura. A utilização de explantes seccionados longitudinalmente não se mostrou favorável devido ao crescimento excessivo da bactéria na superfície do explante. / Genetic transformation is an important biotechnological tool in citrus genetic breeding programs, and an alternative to overcome natural barriers to the development of new varieties, by conventional breeding. However, the protocols used for citrus genetic transformation have resulted in a low number of transgenic plants. Therefore, this research evaluated some factors that might influence citrus genetic transformation process via Agrobacterium tumefaciens, such as: the addition of acetosyringone in different steps of the process, the explant incubation conditions during and after the period of co-cultivation, and the explant type cut. Epicotyl segments from seedlings of 'Hamlin' sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) and ‘Carrizo’ citrange (C. sinensis L. Osbeck x Poncirus trifoliata Raf.) were inoculated with EHA 105 strain of A. tumefaciens harboring the binary plasmid p35SGUSINT containing the selection gene for neomicyn phosphotransferase II (nptII) and the reporter gene uidA for b-glucuronidase (GUS). The basic protocol for genetic transformation included the explant inoculation for 20 minutes, and 3 days of co-cultivation in the culture medium supplemented with acetosyringone (100 mM). The epicotyl segments were transferred to selection culture medium, EME culture medium supplemented with BAP (1 mg L -1 ), kanamycin (100 mg L -1 ) and cefotaxime (500 mg L -1 ). The evaluations were done after 5-6 weeks of incubation, determining the number of explants with shoots, the number of gus + shoots, and calculating the genetic transformation efficiency, defined by the relation between the number of gus + shoots and the number of inoculated explants. The highest genetic transformation efficiency was observed in 'Carrizo' citrange. An increase of genetic transformation efficiency, mainly for the 'Hamlin' sweet orange occurred when the segments were incubated under temperatures below 27 o C. The supplementation of the co-cultivation culture medium with acetosyringone depends on pH value of itself. The use of explant sectioned did not favor transformation, probably due to the excessive bacterial growth on explant surface.

Embora desfrute de inegável importância econômica, os citros estão sujeitos a muitos problemas sanitários sendo alguns, limitantes para o cultivo como é o caso das doenças causadas por vírus. A morte súbita dos citros é uma doença relacionada à combinação copa/ porta-enxerto e manifesta sintomas na região da enxertia sobre porta-enxertos intolerantes. Embora sua etiologia não tenha sido determinada, há indicações que a causa da MSC esteja relacionada a uma estirpe do vírus da tristeza dos citros (CTV), a um vírus do gênero Marafivirus, ou a uma associação entre eles. Uma vez que a transformação genética têm sido considerada como uma ferramenta auxiliar a programas de melhoramento de citros, o objetivo deste trabalho foi obter plantas transgênicas de limão \'Cravo\' e laranja \'Valência\' contendo o gene da replicase do Marafivirus e estudar a regeneração e obtenção de plantas in vitro de laranja azeda, via organogênese, visando futuros trabalhos de transformação genética. Experimentos para indução da organogênese in vitro foram realizados avaliando-se citocininas (BAP, TDZ e CIN), em diferentes concentrações, isoladamente ou em combinação com ANA, condições de luminosidade (fotoperíodo de 16 h e escuro por 30 dias), meios de cultivo e explantes (provenientes de plantas germinadas in vitro e de plantas mantidas em estufa). Além disso, avaliou-se o enraizamento dos brotos regenerados. Para a transformação genética, explantes de limão \'Cravo\' e laranja \'Valência\' foram inoculados e co-cultivados com a estirpe EHA 105 de Agrobacterium tumefaciens contendo o gene da replicase do Marafivirus (em seqüência sense e antisense interligadas por um íntron). A construção gênica foi elaborada a partir do plasmídeo pCAMBIA 2201, dirigidas pelo promotor 35S e terminador NOS, contendo ainda o gene de seleção nptII. A transformação foi confirmada por análises de PCR e \'Southern blot\'. A transcrição do gene foi avaliada por RT-PCR e \'northern blot\'. A adição de BAP, combinada ou não com ANA, e em combinações com CIN ao meio de cultivo, assegurou maior formação de gemas adventícias em segmentos de epicótilo de laranja azeda. Entretanto, TDZ não se mostrou favorável a essa resposta, que também é afetada pela ausência de luz. Os explantes provenientes do cultivo in vitro mostraram-se mais favoráveis à resposta organogênica. O enraizamento das brotações de laranja azeda regeneradas foi obtido no meio MT com metade da concentração de sais, sem ou com auxinas. Foi possível obter plantas transgênicas de limão \'Cravo\' e de laranja \'Valência\' contendo o gene da replicase do Marafivirus utilizando-se segmentos internodais como explantes. A análise de \'Southern blot\' confirmou a integração de um a quatro eventos de inserção do transgene no genoma das plantas. A transcrição do gene da replicase do Marafivirus e do gene nptII foi observada por RT-PCR. / In spite of great economic importance, the citrus industry is affected by many phytopathological problems some, limiting its cultivation such as virus-caused diseases. The citrus sudden death disease is related to scion/rootstock combinations and manifests symptoms in the grafting area of intolerant rootstocks. Although its etiology has not been determined, there are indications that the cause of MSC might be related to a strain of the Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), to a virus of the Marafivirus group, or to an association of both viruses. Since the genetic transformation has been considered as an auxiliary tool to programs of citrus improvement, the objectives of this work were to obtain transgenic plants of the Rangpur lime and Valencia sweet orange containing the Marafivirus replicase gene and study the in vitro regeneration of sour orange plants through organogenesis, aiming for future work in genetic transformation. Experiments for induction of in vitro organogenesis were carried out evaluating citocinins (BAP, TDZ and KIN), in different concentrations, separately or in combination with NAA, lighting conditions (photoperiod of 16 hours and darkness for 30 days), cultivation media and explants (coming from in vitro germinated plants and from green house cultivated plants). Besides this, rooting of the regenerated shoots was evaluated. For the genetic transformation, Rangpur lime and Valencia sweet orange explants were inoculated and co-cultivated with the EHA-105 Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain containing the Marafivirus replicase gene (in sense and antisense sequence linked by an intron). The genetic construct used derived from the pCAMBIA 2201 plasmid, driven by the 35S promoter and NOS terminator, containing the selection nptII gene. The genetic transformation was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis. The gene transcription was evaluated by RT-PCR and northern blot. The addition of BAP to the culture medium, combined or not with NAA, and in combinations with KIN, assured a greater formation of adventitious buds in sour orange epicotyl segments. However, TDZ was not favorable to this response, that is also affected by the absence of light. Explants coming from in vitro cultivation were more favorable to the organogenic response. Rooting of sour orange regenerated shoots was obtained in MT medium with half the salt concentration, with or without auxin. It was possible to obtain transgenic Rangpur lime and Valencia sweet orange plants containing the Marafivirus replicase gene using internodal segments as explants. The Southern blot analysis confirmed the integration of one to four copies of the transgene in the plant genome. The transcription of the Marafivirus replicase gene and the nptII gene was observed by RT-PCR.