This thesis explain today and future technologies of air traffic collision avoidance systems and of its utilizability by unmanned aircraft. The first part describes the UAVs and their categorization. Next part deals with the legislative requirements for their operation. The main part deals with TCAS, ADS-B, FLARM and others that are now used in civil aviation as a key technology to avoid a collision. The last part describes the UAV systems with a focus on the actual sensors used in systems for unmanned aerial vehicles for collision avoidance. The whole work deals with issues of development of collision avoidance systems and summarizes the current technology with a view to its possible application in the near future.

In der heutigen Zeit ist die effiziente Nutzung aller verfügbaren Ressourcen von zentralem Interesse. Im Bereich der Flugführung hat die Fernüberwachung von Flughäfen aus diesem Grund über die letzten 10 Jahre immer mehr Bedeutung erlangt. Die größten Vorteile der Fernüberwachung liegen in der geringeren Abhängigkeit von Flughafengebäuden und deren Instandhaltung, einer vereinfachten Personalplanung (vor allem bei kleinen Flughäfen) sowie dem möglichen Hinzufügen von zusätzlichen Informationen beim Arbeitsplatz zur Fernüberwachung. Insbesondere das Designen eines Arbeitsplatzes zur Fernüberwachung hat in diesem Zusammenhang eine Schlüsselrolle eingenommen. Die größte Herausforderung bei dieser Umsetzung ist ein Mensch-Computer-Interaktionsmodell, das die Verlagerung der Arbeitsplätze unterstützt, indem es die Einflüsse auf den Operateur und dessen Aufgaben beschreibt. Die vorliegende Dissertation fokussiert sich auf die Anwendung und Verbesserung eines Mensch-Computer-Interfacemodells zur Umwandlung eines Arbeitsplatzinterfaces ohne Beeinflussung der Aufgabe des Operateurs. Das präsentierte Modell konzentriert sich auf den Informationsfluss am Arbeitsplatz, anstatt technisch machbare Konzepte zu präsentieren. Es besteht aus 3 Teilen, welche sich separat mit dem Einfluss des veränderten Interfaces auf den Informationsfluss auseinandersetzen. Das Modell wird für die Thematik der Fernüberwachung spezifiziert und angewendet. Nur wenige Publikationen beschäftigten sich bisher mit Strategien, mit denen Towerlotsen Flugführung durchführen. Daher ist das Ziel dieser Arbeit, einen soliden Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Psychologie im Bereich Mensch-Computer-Interaktion zu leisten, welcher durch praktische Anwendungen und Erweiterungen der Methodik untermauert wird. Der Hauptunterschied zwischen dem konventionellen Arbeitsplatz und dem Arbeitsplatz zur Fernüberwachung ist der Verlust der Außensicht und des Fernglases und deren Ersatz durch Kamerasysteme. Neue Systeme in der Flugsicherung können die menschliche Leistung beeinflussen. Daher hat die Fernüberwachung besonderen Einfluss auf die Bereiche Ausrüstung des Arbeitsplatzes, das Benutzerinterface und menschliche Leistungsfähigkeit. Die Herausforderung für die Ausrüstung des Arbeitsplatzes besteht darin, Informationen zu identifizieren, welche durch die Fernüberwachung reduziert wurden und diese durch zusätzliche Informationensysteme bzw. Assistenzsysteme zu ergänzen. Für den Faktor Benutzerinterface ist das Ermitteln und Analysieren von dynamischen Informationen besonders wichtig. Für die menschliche Leistungsfähigkeit besteht hier die Frage, wie sich Arbeitslast und Situationsbewusstsein kombiniert auf die Leistung auswirken und welche Konsequenzen das auf die Arbeit an einem Arbeitsplatz zur Fernüberwachung hat. Alle Herausforderungen wurden im Detail analysiert. Für den Faktor Ausrüstung des Arbeitsplatzes zeigen zwei Analysen die große Vielzahl an Indikatoren, welche verwendet werden können, um die Veränderung des Informationsflusses zu bestimmen. Die detaillierte Analyse des Windsack Indikators liefert ein Beispiel, wie die verschiedenen Indikatoren angewendet werden können. Die zweite Analyse zeigt, wie die bestehenden Indikatoren zur Lotsenaufgabe um spezielle Wetterindikatoren erweitert werden, um den Aspekt der Überwachung des Luftraums vollständig abzudecken. Für den Faktor Benutzerinterface wurde eine besondere Blickanalyse mit dem Namen Integration Guideline for Dynamic Areas of Interest (IGDAI) entwickelt. Diese erlaubt, die dynamischen Informationen innerhalb des Interfaces eines Arbeitsplatzes zu analysieren. Sie wird auf den Arbeitsplatz zur Fernüberwachung angewendet. Für den Faktor menschliche Leistungsfähigkeit zeigt eine detaillierte Analyse, wie Arbeitslast und Situationsbewusstsein die Leistung bei niedriger und hoher Aufgabenlast beeinflussen. Durch das Anwenden von IGDAI konnten zwei Kontrollstrategien in Abhängigkeit zur Aufgabenlast identifiziert werden. Das bereitgestellte Model für die Veränderung des Interfaces ohne Beeinflussung der Operatoraufgabe stellt einen Sonderfall in Bereich der Mensch-Computer-Interaktion dar. Der Übergang vom konventionellen zum Fernüberwachungsarbeitsplatz ist ein sich immer noch fortsetzender Prozess. Weitere Entwicklungen im Bereich der Fernüberwachung von Flughäfen sind notwendig, um den zukünftigen Herausforderungen an die Flugführung zu begegnen. Deshalb stellen die in dieser Dissertation dargestellten Konstrukte, erarbeiteten Methoden sowie Ergebnisse eine solide Basis für zukünftige Forschungsarbeiten bereit.:Table of Contents I Synopsis 1 1 Introduction 2 2 Research framework and goals 4 2.1 Human-computer interaction 4 2.2 Remote Tower Operations 4 2.3 Remote Tower Research 6 2.4 Embedding into HCI 7 2.5 Research goals of the dissertation 8 3 The development of a new workplace 9 3.1 Redesign of a workplace 9 3.2 Design factors in Aviation 10 3.3 Remote Tower Metrics 11 3.4 Dynamic Areas of Interests 11 3.5 Adaptation and strategy shifts 11 4 Methodological aspects of the dissertation 13 4.1 Identify and evaluate remote tower metrics 13 4.2 Evaluate dynamic areas of interest 13 4.3 Measuring Situation Awareness 14 5 Discussion and implications 16 5.1 Summarising the findings 16 5.2 Theoretical implications 17 5.3 Implications for the application 19 5.4 Critical reflection of the methodology 20 5.5 Revenue for psychological research 22 6 Literature 24 II Article 1: How to Evaluate Remote Tower Metrics in Connection to Weather Observations. An Extension of the Existing Metrics 28 III Article 2: A Guideline for Integrating Dynamic Areas of Interests in Existing Set-up for Capturing Eye Movement: Looking at Moving Aircraft 53 IV Article 3: The Influence of Task Load on Situation Awareness and Control Strategy in the ATC Tower Environment. 84 V Contributions to conferences 116 VI Curriculum vitae and publications 117 / The efficient usage of all available resources is a central interest of our time. In air traffic management, the topic of remote tower operations has increased in importance over the last 10 years. Herein, the design of a remote tower workplace plays a key role in the successful implementation of remote tower operations. Less dependency on building and maintaining airport control towers, an improved human research planning (especially for small airports) and an increase in available information to the conventional tower workplace are central advantages of remote tower operations. However, a potential challenge for this approach is an HCI model that supports the transition by describing the influence on the operator task. This dissertation focuses on the application and improvement of an HCI approach to redesign a workplace by changing the interface without influencing the task of the operator. The presented model focuses on the flow of information rather than the presentation of technical possibilities. It consists of three parts that each individually measure and analyse the influence that a redesigned interface has on the flow in information. This model is specified and applied to remote tower operations. Prior to this dissertation, there were only a few publications connected to the strategies that air traffic control officers (ATCO) in the tower use to control traffic and virtually no publications connected to the practical implications for working at a remote tower workplace. Therefore, the goal was to provide a well-founded contribution to the development of psychology in the area of human-computer interaction by applying the psychological theories and extension of the methodology. The main difference between the conventional and the remote tower workplaces is the replacement of out-the-window view and binoculars by camera systems. Based on what influences the human performance in connection with new systems developed in air traffic control, most changes afflict the general workstation and equipment, the user interface, and human resource management. The challenge for the factor workstation and equipment is to identify the information decrease at the remote tower workplace and its replacement with additional information whilst simultaneously ensuring that this information can be tested in a standardised manor throughout a variety of research projects and several different prototypes. The challenge for the factor user interface was the analysis of the dynamic information presented at the remote tower workplace. The challenge for the human resource management is to identify how workload and situation awareness influence performance. In sum, all challenges are analysed in detail. For the factor workstation and equipment, two analyses showed a large variety of indicators that are applicable to evaluate the difference in the flow of information between the conventional and the remote tower workplace. The first analysis of the windsock indicator provided an example of how the different metrics can be applied. The second analysis showed that the weather remote tower metrics extend the existing remote tower metrics and thereby complete the aspects of the monitoring that an ATCO has to perform. For the factor user interface an advanced gaze analysis, called Integration Guideline for Dynamic Areas of Interest (IGDAI) was developed. This allows for a detailed analysis of the dynamic information presented at the remote tower workplace. For the factor human resource management, a detailed analysis shows how situation awareness and workload influence performance within low and high task load phases. By applying IGDAI, the existence of two control strategies for the Air Traffic Control (ATC) environment that are each related to the task load phases could be identified as well as the extent to which these might afflict remote tower operations. The provided model of redesigning only the interface presents a detailed approach for a special case in HCI. The transition from the conventional to the remote tower operations is an ongoing process that will be continued. The development in the domain of remote tower operations seems to be stable and necessary to keep up with the challenges of future air traffic management. Therefore, the analysed constructs, developed methodologies and presented results from this dissertation provide a seminal basis for the necessary future research.:Table of Contents I Synopsis 1 1 Introduction 2 2 Research framework and goals 4 2.1 Human-computer interaction 4 2.2 Remote Tower Operations 4 2.3 Remote Tower Research 6 2.4 Embedding into HCI 7 2.5 Research goals of the dissertation 8 3 The development of a new workplace 9 3.1 Redesign of a workplace 9 3.2 Design factors in Aviation 10 3.3 Remote Tower Metrics 11 3.4 Dynamic Areas of Interests 11 3.5 Adaptation and strategy shifts 11 4 Methodological aspects of the dissertation 13 4.1 Identify and evaluate remote tower metrics 13 4.2 Evaluate dynamic areas of interest 13 4.3 Measuring Situation Awareness 14 5 Discussion and implications 16 5.1 Summarising the findings 16 5.2 Theoretical implications 17 5.3 Implications for the application 19 5.4 Critical reflection of the methodology 20 5.5 Revenue for psychological research 22 6 Literature 24 II Article 1: How to Evaluate Remote Tower Metrics in Connection to Weather Observations. An Extension of the Existing Metrics 28 III Article 2: A Guideline for Integrating Dynamic Areas of Interests in Existing Set-up for Capturing Eye Movement: Looking at Moving Aircraft 53 IV Article 3: The Influence of Task Load on Situation Awareness and Control Strategy in the ATC Tower Environment. 84 V Contributions to conferences 116 VI Curriculum vitae and publications 117

The aviation industry is under increasing pressure to reduce cost and manage the increased number of passengers. One area under pressure is the Air Traffic Control. The Air Traffic Control will in a foreseeable future manage the introduction of drones also known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by integrating them into civil airspace with manned aircraft. Drones are lacking consensus from authorities with regards to standards due to their rapid expansion. Given their size, shape and speed, they can also pose threats to manned aircrafts and there is a need to address them in an Air Traffic Management system interoperating with manned aircrafts. The purpose in this study is to identify what considerations to make when automating complex system elements with respect to safety. Safety involves all the different stakeholders in the air transportation system, which is a Safety critical System. Furthermore, the aim is also to identify areas in which European Operational Concept Validation Methodology (E-OCVM) can be complemented with. Standard E-OCVM is missing specific assessment criteria with regards to safety and how it can interact with other standards. The approach is thereby to use various standards with focus on Systems Engineering to complement E-OCVM since it is lacking with regards to how it is used to validate Air Traffic Control systems. To capture the complexity of automating elements of an industry involving many stakeholders, a qualitative analysis was conducted in this project, using a System Engineering approach with four standards A-SLP, A-RLP, A-DAS and A-SAS. A-SLP and A-RLP are two general standards while A-DAS and A-SAS are focusing on the contexts of aircrafts and software development. Empirical data was gathered by semi-structured interviews of seven experts within the relevant areas in the field. From the review of the four standards, it was found that they can for instance complement E-OCVM in how software errors can lead to a failure condition among other ways. The main identified considerations faced with an integration of drones into civil airspace, is to manage the human interaction with the introduced Air Traffic Management systems. More specifically, the human element must be involved from the training phase in the development of systems in a Safety Critical System to minimize risk. Furthermore, redundancies that are built into the system has to, not only be able to put the system into a safe state, but also be carefully analyzed in how they interact with other systems to avoid misjudgement for the Air Traffic Controllers. Lastly, to obtain specific details on how interoperability could occur using standards, the standards used in this study refer to usage of other documents and standards. Standards specifically tailored for the operational context of drones would facilitate further testing and implementation of their integration into civil airspace. Given that different standards were used to complement the EOCVM standard, a set of unified standards are required that are proportional with the type of drones, the type of operations and in the environment that they are operating in. This will be needed to fulfill the European vision of safe integration of drones and needs thereby to be carried out in a global manner, thus also share experience with other actors to advance the new technology adaptation.

Using a new implementation of a NASA flight simulation of the Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft, autopilots were designed to be capable of flying both straight in (ILS) approaches, and circling (SNI) approaches. A standard glideslope coupler was sufficient for most conditions, but a standard Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) based localizer tracker was not sufficient for maintaining a lateral track on the SNI course. To track the SNI course, a feed-forward system, using GPS steering provided much better results. NASA and the FAA embrace the concept of a Simultaneous, Non-Interfering (SNI) approach as a way to increase airport throughput while reducing the noise footprints of aircraft on approach. The NASA concept for the SNI approach for Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) aircraft involves a straight in segment flown above the flight path of a normal approach, followed by a spiraling descent to the runway. As this is a procedure that would be utilized by regional airliners, it is assumed that it would be conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). GPS or INS guidance would be required to fly this approach, and it is likely that it would be necessary to fly the approach with a coupled autopilot: a stabilized, curving, instrument approach to decision altitude would be exceedingly difficult to fly. The autopilots in many current commuter and general aviation aircraft, however, were designed before the event of GPS, and do not have provisions for tracking curved paths. This study identifies problem areas in implementing the SNI circling approach on aircraft and avionics as they stand today and also gives examples of what can be done for the SNI approach to be successful.

With unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, becoming readily available and affordable, applications for these devices have grown immensely. One type of application is the use of drones to fly over large areas and detect desired entities. For example, a swarm of drones could detect marine creatures near the surface of the ocean and provide users the location and type of animal found. However, even with the reduction in cost of drone technology, such applications result costly due to the use of custom hardware with built-in advanced capabilities. Therefore, the focus of this thesis is to compile an easily customizable, low-cost drone design with the necessary hardware for autonomous behavior, swarm coordination, and on-board object detection capabilities. Additionally, this thesis outlines the necessary network architecture to handle the interconnection and bandwidth requirements of the drone swarm. The drone on-board system uses a PixHawk 4 flight controller to handle flight mechanics, a Raspberry Pi 4 as a companion computer for general-purpose computing power, and a NVIDIA Jetson Nano Developer Kit to perform object detection in real-time. The implemented network follows the 802.11s standard for multi-hop communications with the HWMP routing protocol. This topology allows drones to forward packets through the network, significantly extending the flight range of the swarm. Our experiments show that the selected hardware and implemented network can provide direct point-to-point communications at a range of up to 1000 feet, with extended range possible through message forwarding. The network also provides sufficient bandwidth for bandwidth intensive data such as live video streams. With an expected flight time of about 17 minutes, the proposed design offers a low-cost drone swarm solution for mid-range aerial surveillance applications.

Kontroll av trafik på och kring flygfält är ett krav för att få industrin och dess relaterade tjänster att upnå den säkerhet och effektivitet som krävs i dagens samhälle. Detta har traditionellt gjorts med bemannade kontrolltorn med full utsikt över fältet. Dessa torn är dock kostsamma både i konstruktion, drift och bemanning. Flygtrafik kontroll på distans har varit i utveckling under de senaste åren. Dessa projekt har som mål att sänka kostnader och låta avlägsna flygplatser med lite eller säsongsbaserad trafik att ändå ha tillgång till flygkontrollanter vid behov året om. Sådan teknologi kräver att kamera och positionsbestämning arbetar tillsammans med ett användargränssnitt som presenterar all relevant information på ett effektivt och intuitivt sätt. Denna rapport täcker designval och teknologier använda i utvecklingen av ett gränssnitt som använder augumented reality för att binda renderade element till ett objekt i bild igenom att utnyttja dess GPS koordinater. Projektet har som mål att visa ett produktkoncept som realistiskt sett skulle kunna utvecklas till en kommersiell produkt. Den färdiga applikationen använder ett set av tidsstämplade GPS koordinater från fordon i trafik på ett flygfält samt video av området. Applikationen använder kamerakalibrering för att bestämma kamerans position och orientering för att sedan omvandla GPS position till skärmposition så att man kan binda grafiska element till GPS koordinaterna vilket i detta fall är fordonen i drift. Projektet utnyttjar OpenGL samt fritt tillgängliga bibliotek för att hantera uppspelning av videofil, avkodning av bildformat och projektion av koordinater inom applikationen. Resultatet visar ett troligt produktkoncept som kan utnyttjas inom framtida produkter och system samt hur ett sådant systems användargränssnitt kan se ut, då projektet använder välkända kalibreringsmetoder och bibliotek som används inom industrin. / Air- and ground traffic control of any airport or airfield is a vital task necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of the services it provides and the efficiency of the infrastructure. Traditionally done through manned towers with an outlook over the field where operators can guide the traffic into safe takeoffs and landings. This traditional air-traffic control tower is, however, costly to build, maintain and staff. The remotecontrolled tower has been in development for some time now, meant to reduce cost and provide operators to any field utilizing the technology when need arise, even in remote locations with season dependent usage. However, with such technology one needs a camera, geographic locators, and information interfaces to all work together. This report covers the design and technologies used to develop an Augmented Reality interface that anchors its position based on a geographic locator using the GPS system. Its objective is to showcase or conceptualize a product that could realistically be developed further into a commercially viable system. Used within the application is a subset of timestamped GPS data of moving vehicles and a recorded video of the same area. Using Camera Calibration algorithms to find the location of the camera and line up the position of calibration points and their viewed position in the video one can later track the vehicles and attach AR-interfaces over them. All of which is rendered using OpenGL and freely available libraries for video playback and more. The result showcases a viable conceptualization of what future products might look like using current graphical guidelines and well-known calibration methods using a graphics library that is well used within the industry and multiple application or game engines.

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With an increasing population of super heavy aircraft operating in the National Airspace System and with the introduction of NextGen technologies, the wake vortex problem has become more important for airport capacity and the en-route air traffic operations. The vortices generated by heavy and super heavy aircraft can generate potential hazards to other aircraft on nearby flight paths. Moreover, the design of new airport procedures needs to consider the interactions between aircraft in closer paths. New methods and models are required to examine these effects before new operations are conducted in the National Airspace System (NAS). Reducing wake vortex separations to safe levels between successive aircraft is essential for NextGen operations. One approach taken recently by ICAO and the FAA is to introduce a re-categorization (ReCat) of wake vortex separations to six groups from the existing five groups employed by the FAA in the United States. Reduced aircraft separations can increase capacity in the NAS with corresponding savings in delay times at busy airports. Future NextGen operations are likely to introduce smaller aircraft separations in the en-route and in the terminal area. Such operations would require better methods to identify potential wake hazards from reduced separation operations. This dissertation describes a model to identify potential wake encounters in the future NAS. The goal of the dissertation is to describe the Enhanced Wake Encounter Model (EWEM), a model that employs a detailed NASA-developed wake model to generate wake zones for different aircraft categories under different flight conditions that can be used with aircraft flight path data to identify potential wake encounters. The main contribution of this model is to gain an understanding of potential wake encounters under future NAS operations. / Ph. D.

The aim of this study was to investigate how air traffic controllers cope with stress and also to determine whether there were statistically significant differences in the coping behaviour of air traffic control staff from different groups. The study was conducted on a sample of Air Traffic Controllers who control civilian aircraft in the South African airspace. The coping resources inventory (CRI) assessment was used to collect data and analysed to determine how controllers cope with stress and whether there are differences in the coping behaviour of air traffic control staff from different groups. The results showed that air traffic controllers use emotional coping resources to cope with stressful work situations and make less use of cognitive coping resources. The results also showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the coping behaviour of air traffic control staff from different groups. / Industrial and organisational psychology / M.A. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)