Summary: Salivary alpha-amylase: More than an enzyme - Investigating confounders of stress-induced and basal amylase activity (Dipl.-Psych. Jana Strahler) The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are two of the major systems playing a role in the adaptation of organisms to developmental changes that threaten homeostasis. The HPA system involves the secretion of glucocorticoids, including cortisol, into the circulatory system. Numerous studies have been published that introduced salivary cortisol to assess HPA axis activity and therefore strengthens its role as an easy obtainable biomarker in stress research that can be monitored easily and frequently. Recent findings suggest a possible surrogate marker of autonomic activity due to autonomic innervation of salivary glands: salivary alpha-amylase (sAA). Up to date, additional methodological research is needed for a better understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of sAA activity in comparison to already established markers of ANS activity. The aim of the present thesis is to further our knowledge of confounders of sAA activity under basal and acute stress conditions and to strengthen the validity of this enzyme as an easy obtainable alternative for ANS testing. After introducing classical and modern stress concepts and stress system physiology (chapter 2), the reader is acquainted with anatomical basics of salivary gland innervation and secretion of salivary proteins, including sAA, due to autonomic innervation (chapter 3 and 4). Afterwards, a more nuanced review of methodological considerations of sAA determination shows gaps of knowledge concerning its usefulness as a marker of ANS activity (chapter 5). Given the fact that the integration of sAA into developmental and aging research is a relative recent phenomenon, several issues have to be addressed before a final conclusion could be drawn. Therefore, we conducted a series of studies incorporating these considerations regarding behavioral correlates of inter- and intraindividual differences in sAA activity with a special emphasis on older adults. Chapter 7 deals with sAA activity under psychological stress conditions in different age groups. Since vulnerability to disease and disease prevalence patterns change with age, it is important to investigate stress reactivity of people in different age groups. We therefore investigated children between 6 and 10 years, because childhood is a sensitive period of growth and development, and thus plays an important role for later life health. Young adults were included to represent the most studied human age group as a reference. Older adults between 59 and 61 years were investigated, because at this age the course is set for the further development of a person’s health in later life, and because autonomic stress responses in older age might be important determinants of cardiovascular and inflammatory aging. Our goal is to test for associations of sAA with more established stress system markers, i.e., salivary cortisol as outcome measurement of HPA reactivity, heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) as markers for autonomic reactivity, and to directly compare these responses between different age groups across the life span. Secretion of sAA and cortisol was repeatedly assessed in 62 children, 78 young adults, and 74 older adults after exposure to a standardized psychosocial stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. In addition, cardiovascular activity was measured in both adult groups. Older adults showed attenuated sAA, HR, and HRV responses. Furthermore, we found higher sAA but lower cortisol at baseline as well as lower sAA and cortisol responses in children. Age by sex interactions were observed only for cortisol with higher responses in older male participants. No associations between the parameters were found. Results in children and young adults confirm previous results. Overall, findings implicate sAA as an alternative or additional autonomic stress marker throughout the life span, with marked and rapid responsiveness to stress in three relevant age groups. The impact of age and chronic stress on basal sAA activity is the center of interest in chapter 8. We therefore assessed diurnal profiles of sAA and salivary cortisol in 27 younger and 31 older competitive ballroom dancers as well as 26 younger and 33 older age- and sex-matched controls. According to the Allostatic Load concept, repeated, non-habituating responses to social-evaluative conditions, which characterize the lives of competitive ballroom dancers, should be associated with stress system dysregulations. Furthermore, we expect to see an increased sympathetic drive associated higher overall alpha-amylase activity in older adults. Analyses revealed an elevated daily overall output of sAA in older adults while there was no effect of age on mean cortisol levels. Alterations of diurnal rhythms were only seen in younger male dancers showing a flattened diurnal profile of sAA and younger dancers and female older dancers showing a blunted diurnal rhythmicity of cortisol. Furthermore, we found a negative correlation between summary indices of basal sAA and the amount of physical activity. In conclusion, higher overall output of sAA in older adults was in line with the phenomenon of a “sympathetic overdrive” with increasing age. Furthermore, a lower output of sAA in people who are more physical active was in line with the hypothesis of an exercise-induced decrease of sympathetic activity. Taken together, results of chapter 7 and 8 show a clear impact of age on sAA activity, either under acute stress or basal conditions. One problem when integrating sAA into developmental and aging research is the use of adrenergic agonists and antagonists what is very common in older adults, i.e. antihypertensive drugs (AD). As well, the previously shown sympathetic overactivity that occurs with normal aging is associated with higher blood pressure (BP). Therefore, chapter 9 deals with a possible impact of high BP and AD on diurnal sAA activity in 79 older adults (33 normotensive adults, 16 medicated vs. 45 hypertensive adults, 34 medicated). Results showed a pronounced rhythm of sAA in all groups. Diurnal profiles differed significantly between men and women with men lacking the typical decrease of sAA in the morning and showing more pronounced alterations throughout the day. An effect of AD on sAA profiles and area under the curve values indicates that subjects not using AD´s show a heightened diurnal profile and a higher total output of sAA. Descriptively, this was also true for hypertensive older adults. Hypertensive subjects and those not using AD showed the highest diurnal output of sAA and the steepest slope. In sum, our results show an impact of antihypertensive medication and a difference between normotensive and hypertensive subjects on characteristics of diurnal sAA activity. Hence, findings are of particular interest in research using sAA as a prognostic indicator of pathological states and processes. Given the fact that hypertension was also shown to be associated with substantial changes of transmitters within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) - the “biological clock” that receives photic input from retinal glands via the retinohypothalamic pathway - and an altered output from the SCN to the sympathetic nervous system, we broaden the idea of a possible effect of different lighting conditions on morning sAA profiles in chapter 10. In a counterbalanced within-subjects design six men and 16 women of different ages collected sAA morning profiles on two consecutive days with leaving their shutters closed on the one day (= dark) and open their shutters on the other day (= bright). We were able to replicate earlier findings of light-induced changes of salivary cortisol with higher responses during the bright condition. On either day, women showed larger cortisol increases than men. Despite multisynaptic autonomic connections arising from the SCN projecting to multiple organs of the body, we could not find an effect of sunlight on sAA morning profiles. Evidence for circadian clock gene expression in human oral mucosa might account for this result and indicates that peripheral oscillators may act more like integrators of multiple different time cues, e.g. light, food intake, instead of a “master” oscillator (SCN). Results of chapter 7 to 10 provide clear evidence that sAA is heightened in states of autonomic arousal, i.e. stress, aging and hypertension, and that its circadian rhythmicity seems to be regulated rather integrative than directly via efferent input from hypothalamic SCN neurons. In chapter 11 this thesis tries to approach one central question: What is the biological meaning of the findings made? According to this enzyme´s anti-bacterial and digestive action short term changes might not have a biological meaning itself but rather reflect just a small part of multiple coordinated body responses to stressful stimuli. While the sympathetic branch of the ANS mainly stimulates protein secretion, the parasympathetic branch stimulates saliva flow. Acute stress responses might therefore be interpreted as reflecting predominant sympathetic activity together with parasympathetic withdrawal. The same mechanism could also be suitable for the finding of higher diurnal levels of sAA in older adults or hypertensive subjects reflecting a higher peripheral sympathetic tone in these groups. Diurnal profiles of sAA itself may reflect circadian changes in autonomic balance. Circadian rhythms are of great advantage since they enable individuals to anticipate. This pre-adaptation enables the individual to cope with upcoming demands and challenges. Our finding of a relationship between sAA and salivary cortisol what strengthens the relevance of glucocorticoids that were previously shown to be able to phase shift circadian rhythms in cells and tissue. Within a food-related context there is evidence that decreasing levels of sAA in the morning could reflect increases of feeling hungry since sAA systematically increases during food consumption and with the subjective state of satiety. So far, much more research is needed to identify underlying physiological mechanisms of circadian sAA rhythmicity. Taking the next step, future studies will have to focus on the integration of sAA assessment into longitudinal studies and different disease states to prove its applicability as a marker of sympathetic neural functioning in the genesis and prognosis of disease.

Le suivi et la compréhension des états de stress et de récupération des sportifs est un enjeu majeur, notamment dans le cadre de périodisations complètes de l’entraînement. Un déséquilibre mal maîtrisé entre le stress et la récupération peut induire une fatigue voire un épuisement psychologique et physiologique du sportif. Il en découlera des conséquences néfastes sur le bien-être et la santé de la personne mais également sur la performance individuelle et collective. Ces conséquences sont complexes et impliquent des dimensions environnementales, sociales, psychologiques et physiologiques non-spécifiques. Enfin, ces symptômes sont soumis à des variations intra et interindividuelles importantes rendant le diagnostic d’autant plus complexe à établir. En s’appuyant sur plusieurs suivis de sportifs en pôle « Espoir », ce travail de recherche montre l’évolution de variables psychologiques et physiologiques intervenant dans la réponse au stress chez le sportif. Ces travaux permettent également de mettre en évidence des variables prédictives des états de stress et de récupération. Enfin, nous démontrons que les états de stress et de récupération des sportifs impactent les états émotionnels au niveau intra et interindividuel. / Monitoring stress and recovery states is a key issue, especially in high performance sport. An imbalance between stress and recovery can induce fatigue, psychological and physiological exhaustion. Thus, negative consequences on well-being, health and individual and collective performance can be experienced. These consequences are complex as they stem from non-specific environmental, social, psychological and physiological dimensions. These phenomena are subject to important intra-individual and inter-individual variations, which make a diagnosis hard to establish. Based on a several followings of athletes from high performance structures, this research shows the evolution of psychological and physiological variables intervening as a response to stress. From these studies, some predictive variables also showed up in predicting stress and recovery states. Finally, we made evidence of the impact of athletes’ stress and recovery states on emotional states, on the intra and inter-individual levels.

L’objectif de cette étude est d’étudier le rôle de la salive dans la libération des molécules odorantes, par deux approches, in vitro et in vivo. L’effet des protéines salivaires sur la libération de 10 molécules odorantes (5 esters et 5 cétones, de longueur de chaîne hydrophobe variable) a été étudié in vitro dans des systèmes modèles composés de salives artificielles et humaine. Les salives artificielles contiennent les protéines majoritairement présentes dans la salive (mucine et alpha-amylase), seules et en mélange. Les quantités de chaque molécule odorante présentes dans la phase gazeuse à l’équilibre thermodynamique ont été mesurées par une analyse headspace en mode statique couplée à la chromatographie en phase gazeuse (SH-GC). Les coefficients de partage entre l’air et chacun des systèmes modèles ont été calculés pour chacune des molécules. Cette approche in vitro nous a permis de démontrer une diminution des coefficients de partage air/salive artificielle en présence de mucine et d’alpha-amylase, par un effet hydrophobe. Aucun effet cumulatif n’est observé lorsque les deux protéines sont mises ensemble en solution. En présence de salive humaine, une diminution des coefficients de partage est également observée, les esters étant plus affectés par la présence de salive humaine que les cétones. Cette observation est due à une activité des estérases de la salive, qui augmente avec l’hydrophobicité des esters. La libération in vivo du propanoate d’éthyle et de l’hexanoate d’éthyle a été suivie sur 10 sujets par spectrométrie de masse à ionisation chimique à pression atmosphérique (APCI-MS) dans des conditions physiologiques différentes : au repos, après stimulation et après élimination du film salivaire résiduel. La salive de chaque sujet a été caractérisée dans les différentes conditions physiologiques testées. De grandes variations de flux, viscosité et de composition salivaire ont été mises en évidence entre les sujets, ainsi qu’entre les conditions physiologiques pour un même sujet. Les différences observées sur les paramètres de libération in vivo des molécules odorantes sont discutées en regard de ces paramètres physiologiques. Nous avons ainsi observé qu’une viscosité salivaire élevée diminue la quantité de molécules odorantes libérées sur un temps donné. Dans le même temps, la présence d’une quantité importante d’alpha amylase dans la salive augmente de façon significative le temps de libération de la molécule la plus hydrophobe, l’hexanoate d’éthyle. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence que la rétention des molécules hydrophobes par les protéines salivaires peut induire une modification de leur cinétique de libération en conditions réelles de consommation et pourrait intervenir dans la persistance aromatique. / The aim of this work is to give a deeper understanding of the impact of the salivary composition on aroma release, by two approaches, an in vitro and an in vivo approach. The impact of salivary proteins on the release of 10 aroma compounds (5 esters and 5 ketones, varying in their hydrophobic chain length) was first investigated by in vitro model systems composed of artificial and human saliva. Artificial salivas were composed of the main salivary proteins, mucins and alpha amylase, alone and in mixture.The amount of aroma released in the vapor phase at equilibrium was analyzed by Static Headspace Gas Chromatography analysis. Air/system partition coefficients have been calculated. This in vitro approach allowed us to demonstrate the ability of both mucin and alpha-amylase to decrease the release of aroma compounds by hydrophobic effect (increase of retention with aroma hydrophobicity). Interestingly, no cumulative effect was observed when both proteins were mixed together in solution. The release of ketones in presence of human saliva is lower than in water and slightly higher than in the presence of artificial saliva. Esters are more affected by the presence of human saliva than ketones. This observation is due to an esterase activity of saliva, which increases with the hydrophobicity of esters. The in vivo release of ethyl propanoate and ethyl hexanoate was followed on ten subjects by Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization mass spectrometry (APCI-MS) under different physiological conditions: at rest, after stimulation and after removing the superficial salivary coat. The saliva was characterized for each subject and each physiological condition. Great variations were observed between the subjects on the salivary flow, viscosity, composition and for each subject between the physiological conditions. The differences observed on in vivo release parameters are discussed as a function of physiological parameters. We observed that subjects with a more viscous saliva present a lower amount of aroma released. The presence of higher amounts of alpha-amylase increased the time needed to release the more hydrophobic compound, ethyl hexanoate. Our results suggest that the retention of hydrophobic aroma compounds by salivary proteins induces a modification of the kinetics of aroma release in real consumption conditions, and could be responsible for aroma persistence.

Subjects participating in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations regularly report anxiety and stress related reactions. This may result in impaired data quality and premature termination of scans. Moreover, cognitive functions and neural substrates can be altered by stress. While prior studies investigated pre–post scan differences in stress reactions only, the present study provides an in-depth analysis of mood changes and hormonal fluctuations during the time course of a typical fMRI session. Thirty-nine subjects participated in the study. Subjective mood, salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) and cortisol were assessed at six time points during the lab visit. Associations between hormonal data and neural correlates of a visual detection task were observed using a region of interest approach applied to the thalamic region. Mood and hormonal levels changed significantly during the experiment. Subjects were most nervous immediately after entering the scanner. SAA was significantly elevated after MRI preparation. A subgroup of n = 5 (12.8%) subjects showed pronounced cortisol responses exceeding 2.5 nmol/l. Preliminary fMRI data revealed an association between sAA levels and left thalamic activity during the first half of the experiment that disappeared during the second half. No significant correlation between cortisol and thalamic activity was observed. Results indicate that an fMRI experiment may elicit subjective and neuroendocrine stress reactions that can influence functional activation patterns.

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar os efeitos de doses dietéticas crescentes de um produto comercial com atividade amilolítica (AmaizeTM, Alltech Inc., Nicholasville, KY, EUA) na ingestão e digestibilidade aparente total de nutrientes, índice de seleção, fermentação ruminal, produção e composição do leite, perfil metabólico, balanço de energia e nitrogênio em vacas no terço médio de lactação. Foram utilizadas vinte e quatro vacas multíparas da raça Holandesa (162,29 ± 107,96 dias em lactação e 31,60 ± 6,51 kg/d de produção de leite, no início do experimento), sendo que 8 delas possuíam cânulas ruminais, distribuídas em seis quadrados Latinos 4 × 4 contemporâneos e balanceados de acordo com a produção de leite, dias em lactação e o peso corporal dos animais. Os períodos experimentais tiveram duração de 14 dias de adaptação aos tratamentos e 7 dias de amostragem. Os tratamentos foram: dieta basal sem adição de enzima amilolítica ou controle (CON), e dieta basal com adição de 150, 300 ou 450 FAU/kg de MS da dieta (A150, A300 ou A450, respectivamente). Uma FAU (unidade de amilase fúngica) é a quantidade de enzima capaz de dextrinizar amido solúvel na taxa de 1 g/h a 30°C e pH de 4,8. A ingestão média esperada do produto comercial pelos animais foi de 7,37; 14,45; e 21,97 g/d nos tratamentos A150, A300 e A450, respectivamente. Os tratamentos não influenciaram a ingestão de MS e de nutrientes, como também o índice de seleção. Os tratamentos não influenciaram a digestibilidade do amido; porém, a inclusão de enzimas amilolíticas aumentou linearmente a digestibilidade de proteína bruta e tendeu a aumentar linearmente a digestibilidade da MS. Os tratamentos com atividade amilolítica não afetaram o pH e a concentração de amônia no fluído ruminal. A adição de enzimas amilolíticas aumentou linearmente a produção de iso-valerato no rúmen. Além disso, os tratamentos não influenciaram a produção e composição do leite, assim como a eficiência alimentar (kg leite / ingestão de MS) dos animais. A enzima amilolítica aumentou linearmente o peso corporal. Apesar de não alterar a composição do leite, a suplementação com enzima amilolítica diminuiu linearmente a excreção de nitrogênio no leite. As doses crescentes de enzima amilolítica tenderam a diminuir linearmente a eficiência de síntese de proteína microbiana. Não foram observadas diferenças nas concentrações séricas de glicose, ureia, e enzimas que indicam lesões hepáticas. A suplementação com doses crescentes enzima amilolítica não afetou a eficiência alimentar, produção de propionato e de proteína microbiana no rúmen, e perfil metabólico de vacas em lactação. No entanto, os tratamentos aumentaram linearmente a digestibilidade de proteína bruta e o peso corporal das vacas / The objective of the current study was to determine the effects of increasing dietary doses of a commercial product with amylolytic activity (AmaizeTM, Alltech Inc., Nicholasville, KY, USA) on nutrient intake and total apparent digestibility, sorting index, ruminal fermentation, milk yield and composition, serum metabolic profile, energy and nitrogen utilization of midlactating dairy cows. Twenty-four multiparous Holstein cows (162.29 ± 107.96 days in milk and 31.60 ± 6.51 kg/d milk yield, before starting the experiment), in which 8 were ruminally cannulated, were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin experiment design. The squares were contemporaneous and balanced for milk production, days in milk and live weight of cows. The experimental periods consisted of 14 days to treatments adaptation and 7 days for sampling. Treatments were composed of: basal diet with no enzyme or control (CON), and basal diet with addition of 150, 300 or 450 FAU/kg diet DM (A150, A300 or A450, respectively). One FAU (fungal amylase unit) is able to dextrinize soluble starch at rate of 1g/h on 30°C and pH 4.8. The expected average intake of the commercial product for treatments A150, A300 and A450 were 7.37, 14.45 and 21.97 g/d, respectively. Treatments did not influence the DM and nutrient intake, as well as the sorting index. Treatments did not alter starch digestibility; however, they linearly increased the crude protein digestibility and tended to linearly increase the DM digestibility. Treatments with amylolytic activity did not affect the pH and ammonia concentrations of ruminal fluid. The addition of amylolytic enzyme linearly increased the iso-valerate production in the rumen. In addition, treatments did not influence the milk yield and composition, as well as the milk production efficiency (kg of milk / DM intake) of animals. Treatments linearly increased the live weight and maintenance energy utilization of cows. Despite the enzyme supplementation did not alter the milk composition, it linearly decreased the milk nitrogen excretion. Treatments tended to linearly decreased the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis. No differences were observed on serum metabolic profile of animals, including concentrations of glucose, urea and enzymes which indicate hepatic damage. The supplementation with increasing doses of amylolytic enzymes did not affect the milk production efficiency, ruminal propionate production and microbial protein synthesis, and serum metabolic profile of mid-lactating dairy cows. However, treatments linearly increased the crude protein digestibility and live weight of cows

As dietas de vacas em lactação são compostas principalmente por carboidratos que não estão totalmente disponíveis para fermentação microbiana no rúmen, o que pode ser um fator crítico para a obtenção de energia em ruminantes. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito da adição de enzima fibrolítica (Fibrozyme®, Alltech Inc., Springfield, KY) e amilolítica (Amaize, Alltech Inc., Springfield, KY) nas dietas sobre o consumo de nutrientes, índice de seleção de partículas, digestibilidade aparente total, fermentação ruminal, metabolismo de nutrientes, produção e composição do leite de vacas em lactação. Para o experimento, 32 vacas multíparas da raça Holandesa com 181.3 ± 35.3 (média ± SD) dias em lactação (DEL), 571 ± 72.7 kg de peso vivo (PV) e 29.6 ± 5.24 kg/d de produção de leite (PL), foram distribuídas em 8 quadrados Latinos 4×4. Os tratamentos foram obtidos por esquema fatorial 2×2 pela combinação de enzima fibrolítica e amilolítica, como segue: 1) Controle (CONT): dieta basal sem adição de enzimas exógenas; 2) Enzima fibrolítica (FIB): dieta basal com adição de 1 g/kg de Fibrozyme± no concentrado da dieta (51 UI de atividade xilanase/kg de matéria seca (MS) da dieta; Alltech, Nicholasville, KY, USA; batch#: 417990-2); 3) Enzima amilolítica (AMI): dieta basal com adição de 0,66 g/kg de Amaize no concentrado da dieta (203 FAU/kg MS da dieta; Alltech Nicholasville, KY, USA; batch: 432715-1); e 4) FIB+AMI: adição de 1 e 0,66 g/kg de Fibrozyme® e Amaize, respectivamente. As enzimas foram aplicadas para atender um consumo de 12 g/dia de Fibrozyme® e 8 g/dia de Amaize, de acordo com as recomendações do fabricante. A enzima foi adicionada ao concentrado durante a preparação na fábrica de ração (toda semana). Não foram observados efeitos das enzimas sobre o consumo e digestibilidade dos nutrientes. Contudo, houve efeito de interação entre FIB e AMI para o consumo de partículas entre 19 e 8 mm. A enzima amilolítica aumentou o consumo de partículas entre 19 e 8 mm nos animais que não recebiam FIB. Além disso, AMI reduziu o consumo de partículas maiores que 19 mm. Outro efeito observado foi a interação entre FIB e AMI sobre a concentração de butirato ruminal. A enzima amilolítica aumentou a concentração de butirato apenas nos animais tratados com FIB. Houve tendência de interação entre enzimas sobre a excreção de nitrogênio (N) no leite, em que FIB reduziu a excreção de N no leite apenas nos animais não tratados com AMI. Ainda, AMI reduziu a excreção de N na urina. Ainda, houve interação entre os efeitos de enzima fibrolítica e amilolítica sobre a concentração de colesterol e a atividade enzimática da aspartato aminotransferase (AST) e gama glutamiltransferase (GGT). A enzima fibrolítica reduziu a concentração de colesterol e aumentou a atividade da enzima GGT nos animais não tratados com enzima amilolítica. No entanto, a enzima amilolítica aumentou a concentração de colesterol e a atividade da AST nos animais alimentados com enzima fibrolítica. Houve interação entre enzimas exógenas sobre a produção de proteína e lactose no leite. A enzima fibrolítica reduziu a produção de proteína e lactose nos animais não alimentados com AMI. Não houve mudanças na produção de leite com a suplementação de enzimas exógenas. Em nosso estudo foram encontrados efeitos no consumo de partículas, fermentação ruminal, excreção de N e mudanças na composição do leite, contudo não foram observadas alterações no desempenho produtivo dos animais. / Lactating cows diets are comprised mostly of carbohydrates which are not fully available for microbial fermentation in the rumen, critical factor for to obtain energy in ruminants. The aimed of this study was to evaluate the effect of fibrolytic enzyme (Fibrozyme®, Alltech Inc., Springfield, KY) on nutrient intake, sorting index, total tract digestion, ruminal fermentation, nitrogen utilization, metabolic profile, milk yield and composition in diets with or without amylolytic enzyme (Amaize, Alltech Inc., Springfield, KY) of mid-lactating dairy cows. Thirty-two multiparous Hostein cows with 181.3 ± 35.3 (mean ± SD) days in milk (DIM), 571 ± 72.7 kg of body weight (BW) and 29.6 ± 5.24 kg/d of milk yield, were blocked and randomly allocated to a sequence of treatments in a 4 × 4 Latin square experimental design. Treatments were obtained in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, as follows: 1) Control (CONT), basal diet without exogenous enzymes; 2) Fibrolytic enzyme (FIB), provision of Fibrozyme® (batch#: 417990-2; Alltech, Nichollasvile, KY) at 1 g/kg of concentrate (51 IU of xylanase activity/kg diet DM); 3) Amylolytic enzyme (AMY), provision of AmaizeTM (batch#: 432715-1; Alltech) at 0.66 g/kg of concentrate (203 FAU/kg diet DM); and 4) Fibrolytic enzyme plus amylolytic enzyme (FIB+AMY), enzymes added at the same rate in FIB and AMY treatments. The enzymes were applied to meet the intake of 12 and 8 g/cow/day of Fibrozyme® and AmaizeTM, respectively. Enzymes products were added to concentrate during its preparation (once a week). Enzymes no effects on intake and digestibility of nutrients. However, there was FIB and AMY interaction effect on selection index of particle size between 19 and 8 mm. Amylolytic enzyme increase selection index of particles with 19 and 8 mm, only treatments without FIB. Furthermore, AMY decreased the sorting for feed with particle size greater than 19 mm. There was FIB and AMY interaction effect on butyric acid concentration. Amylolytic enzyme increased on butyrate concentrations in cows treated with fibrolytic enzyme. Fibrolytic and amylolytic enzyme interaction effect tended on N excreted in milk, in which FIB decrease N excreted in milk only on animals non-treated with AMY. Whereas AMY reduced urinary N excretion. There was interaction effects of fibrolytic and amylolytic enzymes on cholesterol concentration and the enzymatic activity of AST and GGT. The fibrolytic enzyme reduced cholesterol concentration and increased GGT enzyme activity in animals not treated with amylolytic enzyme. There was FIB and AMY interaction effect on lactose and protein production. Fibrolytic enzyme decreased lactose and protein production, only on animals non-treated with AMY. Exogenous enzymes had no impact on milk production of dairy cows. Enzymes exogenous affected on particle size greater, ruminal fermentation and milk composition. This study did not show evidences that fibrolytic and amylolytic enzymes can alter total tract nutrient digestibility and performance of mid-lactating cows.

Pyrococcus furiosus extracellular &alpha / -amylase is a hyperthermostable glucosyl hydrolyzing enzyme which shows unique biochemical properties that may have impact on improving starch hydrolysis process / however, it is insignificantly expressed in its native archaeal host. In this study, it was aimed to express the P. furiosus extracellular alpha-amylase (PFA) in Pichia pastoris, which is a well-recognized overexpression host used in production of heterologous proteins. In this context, first, P. furiosus was grown under anaerobic conditions in capped bottles for t= 12 h at T=90&deg / C and then its genomic DNA was isolated. PFA coding cDNA frame was amplified using two specifically designed oligonucleotides and cloned into pPICZ&alpha / A expression vector. Then wild type P. pastoris X-33 cells were transfected with pPICZ&alpha / A::PFA construct. In shake flask production medium, existence of recombinant PFA activity was tested and biochemical characterization of the recombinant product was done. This was the first time PFA is expressed in an eukaryotic host. Optimum working temperature and pH of the rPFA were found to be 95 &deg / C and within the range of 4.5-6.5, respectively. rPFA is independent to metal ions and inhibition by production medium of P. pastoris was observed, in presence of divalent metal ions. Although Saccharomyces cerevisiae &alpha / -factor secretion signal was fused to the N terminal of rPFA, minute amount of extracellular secretion was detected but the majority of the enzymatic activity remained in the intracellular medium. The best producer strain was selected by measuring &alpha / -amylase activity in cell extracts by DNS method. Effects of pH on cell growth and recombinant protein production were determined by shake flask experiments and maximum of 4800 U/l rPFA was detected with 7.30 g/l wet cell density in pH=6 buffered medium. In order to achieve higher rPFA production, two bioreactor experiments were designed at two different pH operation conditions, namely pH=4 and pH=5, in a working volume of 1 L. The dissolved oxygen tension was kept over 20% and predetermined exponential methanol feeding strategy was employed in order to fix specific cell growth rate, &micro / , at 0.03 h-1. At pH=4 operation, maximum of 73,400 U/l &alpha / -amylase activity was detected at the t=27 h of production phase when the wet cell density was 209 g/l.

Under certain environmental conditions, some varieties of wheat synthesize the enzyme alpha amylase late in grain ripening, even in the absence of rain or sprouting. The resulting grain has a sound appearance but can be unsuitable for end-product applications due to the presence of late maturity alpha amylase (LMA) activity. Reduction of LMA and the development of cultivars tolerant to boron toxic soils are high priority traits in the WA wheat breeding program and the use of molecular markers closely linked to these traits for marker assisted selection (MAS) is highly desirable. The aims of this study were to take a genomics approach to provide detailed structural information for the region on wheat chromosome 7BL in which quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for LMA and boron tolerance (Bo1) have been mapped. Once the structure had been determined, this then laid the foundation for further studies to investigate the function of putative candidate genes identified within this region. The research involved the use of bioinformatic tools and rice/wheat synteny to investigate the structure of this chromosome region, followed by the use of molecular probes to isolate genomic DNA clones (BAC clones) corresponding to this region. A two-step bioinformatics strategy was used, involving (1) alignment of portions of the wheat and rice genomes, to identify rice genomic regions syntenic to wheat group 7L and (2) selection of candidate genes from those regions of the rice genome. The selected candidate genes included an anion transporter, as a candidate gene for boron tolerance, and GAMYB-like genes, as candidate genes for LMA. The GAMYB class of transcription factors identified were of particular interest because of published literature indicating its importance in controlling ƒÑ-amylase levels in cereal grains. The key phenotype of interest in this thesis is LMA and different levels of expression of ƒÑ-amylase are a key feature of this phenotype. Molecular markers and candidate genes were then used to screen two BAC libraries, one derived from the French cultivar, ¡¥Renan¡¦ and the other derived from Aegilops tauschii (the source of the D genome of wheat). About 300 BAC clones corresponding to the chromosome region of interest were obtained. Of these, 8 BAC clones (6 chosen through hybridization to a GAMYB-like probe, and 2 from wheat ESTs anchored to the rice genome) were selected for sequencing, allowing for the development of new microsatellite and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and for the discovery of novel transposable elements that provide a rich source of polymorphism for the development of additional markers. Novel microsatellite and SNP markers that were identified from the BAC clone sequence were mapped on the Cranbrook/Halberd doubled haploid (DH) mapping population. Markers were located to chromosomes 7AL, 7BL and 7DL. New markers derived from the BAC sequence information were used to anchor the BAC clones to the genetic map and develop a framework physical-genetic map. An automated annotation pipeline has been established and was used to annotate selected contigs of the sequenced BAC clones. A new marker assisted selection strategy, termed Multiplex Trait Signature (MuTs) analysis, was developed and tested on 39 wheat cultivars of known LMA phenotype. MuTs provides a graphical genotype of individuals for a particular chromosomal region and is a convenient tool for interrogating genetic similarity in the individuals surveyed. Based on assays of 22 markers (12 spanning the LMA QTL on chromosome 7BL and 10 spanning the LMA QTL on chromosome 3BS) on these 39 wheat cultivars, it was found that the varieties can be grouped according to pedigree and provides a tool for interpreting LMA status for a variety. Validation of the 7BL LMA and boron tolerance (Bo1) QTL regions was achieved using a targeted mapping approach using the doubled haploid population Pastor/RAC891 using published molecular markers and markers developed in this thesis. The main outcome of this study is that the genomic organisation of this region on chromosome 7BL is complex, and that the identification of candidate genes in wheat controlling 1) tolerance of cultivars to boron toxic soils and 2) pathways regulating the expression of LMA, is likely to involve the interplay of a network of regulatory genes.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2007. / Härtill 6 uppsatser.

abstract: Sleep is essential for physical and psychological health. Sleep has also been linked to the daily patterns of key stress-responsive physiological systems, specifically the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system (ANS). Extant research examining sleep and diurnal patterns of cortisol, the primary end product of the HPA axis, is inconsistent. Moreover, it is not clear how specific aspects of sleep behavior (e.g., sleep duration, sleep quality, sleep variability) are related to specific components of diurnal cortisol rhythms. Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) has been recognized as a surrogate marker of ANS activity, but limited research has explored relations between sleep and sAA diurnal rhythms. The current study utilized a modified ecological momentary assessment protocol to examine within- and between-person relations between multiple facets of sleep behavior using multiple methods (e.g., subjective report, actigraphy) and salivary cortisol and sAA. First year college students (N = 76) provided saliva samples and diary entries five times per day over the course of three days. Sleep was assessed via questionnaire, through daily diaries, and monitored objectively using actigraphy over a four day period. Between-person results revealed that shorter average sleep duration and greater sleep variability was related to lower levels of waking cortisol and flatter diurnal slopes across the day. Within-person results revealed that on nights when individuals slept for shorter durations than usual they also had lower levels of waking cortisol the next day. Sleep was not related to the cortisol awakening response (CAR) or diurnal patterns of sAA, in either between-person or within-person analyses. However, typical sleep behaviors measured via questionnaire were related to waking levels of sAA. Overall, this study provides a greater understanding of how multiple components of sleep, measured in naturalistic environments, is related to cortisol and sAA diurnal rhythms, and how day-to-day, within-person changes in sleep duration contribute to daily variations in cortisol. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2015