No description available.

Quantifying carbon emissions of water bodies at regional scale is required as recent studies revealed their contribution in carbon cycling is significant. This demands to scale up water bodies carbon emissions from local to regional scale using as accurate approach as possible. In this study data of carbon (CO2-C) fluxes for 80 sampled lakes were used to scale up to more than 3000 lakes and ponds over the catchment. The most appropriate method for upscaling was the one in which two factors of water body size and location (altitude) were involved and the uncertainties were quantified in an advanced approach (Monte Carlo model). Based on the estimates obtained in this method, the annual carbon emission from all water bodies (~ 500 km2) was about 2900 ton C yr-1 . About 62% of this annual emission was related to the large lake Torneträsk (334 km2) and another 38% to all other lakes and ponds (166 km2). Water bodies in subalpine region dominated (90%) total water bodies area and were the major contributor (97%) to the total carbon emissions of all water bodies. The remaining small contribution (3%) was for water bodies in the alpine region, which contains only 10% of total water bodies area. These data indicate that all water bodies smaller than the large lake Torneträsk especially the ones in the subalpine region have considerable contribution to the annual carbon emission of all water bodies. Considering water body size and altitude factors in the advanced upscaling method was appropriate to obtain accurate estimates.

No description available.

No description available.

The Alpine Fault in western South Island ruptures every 300±100 years in large magnitude (7.8 ± 3) earthquakes and presents a major seismic hazard to New Zealand. The Deep Alpine Fault Drilling Project (DFDP) aims to drill, sample, and monitor the Alpine Fault in order to investigate the processes of earthquake genesis, rock deformation, and fault gouge formation for a tectonically active fault late in the seismic cycle. Rapid dextral reverse movements and exhumation rates on the central section of the Alpine Fault at Whataroa Valley make this a geologically favourable setting to drill and sample fault rocks at depth that can be correlated with surface exposures. The suitability of a site for stationing a major drilling operation depends upon practical issues such as the engineering geological characteristics of the proposed site, possible geohazards, and drilling logistics. This thesis presents new engineering geological, geophysical, and geomorphic investigations of the Whataroa Valley for the DFDP-2 drill site in order to provide a framework for proposed future operations. MASW, GPR and basic geotechnical methods such as test pits and face logs were conducted at various locations at the site to gain geotechnical properties and attempt to find depth to bedrock. Results showed bedrock is at least 25m deep as it was not seen in any of the GPR surveys. Correlation of the MASW and GPR profiles with freshly eroded and face logged outcrops permitted assignment of s-wave velocities to each of the gravels present and confirmation of features seen in the geophysical surveys. Vs30 values gained from the MASW classed the gravels as a soft soil in Site Class D in NZS 1170.5. Expected peak ground accelerations at the study site during an Alpine Fault earthquake are estimated at ≥0.8g. The Whataroa River is actively eroding the southern edge of the investigation area. Comparison of historic aerial photos and newly obtained LiDAR showed the river bank has moved a total of 165 m since 1948, a majority of that occurring in the past decade, 35 m of erosion occurring over a few days during early January 2011. Little correlation between heavy rainfall periods and increased erosion rates suggest changing channel dynamics play a major part in the channel migration. Modelling of the threshold discharges required to overtop the Whataroa terraces results in return periods several orders of magnitude larger than Alpine Fault earthquake recurrence intervals that result in major sediment pulses, implying that inundation from river flooding under current channel conditions is highly unlikely. Debris flows originating from the west valley wall have been identified as a possible hazard to drilling operations. Recent debris flows were easily mapped due to the changes in vegetation, whereas the remnants of historic debris flows were able to be mapped using the LiDAR. Studies of these show that they have a minimal run out distance (<100 m), and can be easily avoided by ensuring the drill site is located outside the proposed debris flow risk zone plus a 50 m buffer that has been added for caution. Current uncertainty of the fault dip and target depth of the hole causes large variation in proposed drill rig locations at the surface. All of the investigations are summarised on a hazard map used to suggest a range of favoured drill sites based on varied angle dips and drilling depths, minimizing flood, erosion and sediment inundation hazards, and specifying access routes.

The Alpine Fault is the major structure of the Pacific-Australian plate boundary through New Zealand�s South Island. During dextral reverse fault slip, a <5 million year old, ~1 km thick mylonite zone has been exhumed in the hanging-wall, providing unique exposure of material deformed to very high strains at deep crustal levels under boundary conditions constrained by present-day plate motions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the fault zone rheology and mechanisms of strain localisation, to obtain further information about how the structural development of this shear zone relates to the kinematic and thermal boundary constraints, and to investigate the mechanisms by which the viscously deforming mylonite zone is linked to the brittle structure, that fails episodically causing large earthquakes. This study has focussed on the central section of the fault from Harihari to Fox Glacier. In this area, mylonites derived from a quartzofeldspathic Alpine Schist protolith are most common, but slivers of Western Province-derived footwall material, which can be differentiated using mineralogy and bulk rock geochemistry, were also incorporated into the fault zone. These footwall-derived mylonites are increasingly common towards the north. At amphibolite-facies conditions mylonitic deformation was localised to the mylonite and ultramylonite subzones of the schist-derived mylonites. Most deformation was accommodated by dislocation creep of quartz, which developed strong Y-maximum crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) patterns by prism (a) dominant slip. Formation of this highly-oriented fabric would have led to significant geometric softening and enhanced strain localisation. During this high strain deformation, pre-existing Alpine Schist fabrics in polyphase rocks were reconstituted to relatively well-mixed, finer-grained aggregates. As a result of this fabric homogenisation, strong syn-mylonitic object lineations were not formed. Strain models show that weak lineations trending towards ~090� and kinematic directions indicated by asymmetric fabrics and CPO pattern symmetry could have formed during pure shear stretches up-dip of the fault of ~3.5, coupled with simple shear strains [greater than or equal to]30. The preferred estimate of simple:pure shear strain gives a kinematc vorticity number, W[k] [greater than or equal to]̲ 0.9997. Rapid exhumation due to fault slip resulted in advection of crustal isotherms. New thermobarometric and fluid inclusion analyses from fault zone materials allow the thermal gradient along an uplift path in the fault rocks to be more precisely defined than previously. Fluid inclusion data indicate temperatures of 325+̲15�C were experienced at depths of ~45 km, so that a high thermal gradient of ~75�C km⁻� is indicated in the near-surface. This gradient must fall off to [ less than approximately]l0�C km⁻� below the brittle-viscous transition since feldspar thermobarometry, Ti-inbiotite thermometry and the absence of prism(c)-slip quartz CPO fabrics indicate deformation temperatures did not exceed ~ 650�C at [greater than or equal to] 7.0-8.5�1.5 kbar, ie. 26-33 km depth. During exhumation, the strongly oriented quartzite fabrics were not favourably oriented for activation of the lower temperature basal(a) slip system, which should have dominated at depths [less than approximately]20 km. Quartz continued to deform by crystal-plastic mechanisms to shallow levels. However, pure dislocation creep of quartz was replaced by a frictional-viscous deformation mechanism of sliding on weak mica basal planes coupled with dislocation creep of quartz. Such frictional-viscous flow is particularly favoured during high-strain rate events as might be expected during rupture of the overlying brittle fault zone. Maximum flow stresses supported by this mechanism are ~65 Mpa, similar to those indicated by recrystallised grain size paleopiezometry of quartz (D>25[mu]m, indicating [Delta][sigma][max] ~55 MPa for most mylonites). It is likely that the preferentially oriented prism (a) slip system was activated during these events, so the Y-maximum CPO fabrics were preserved. Simple numerical models show that activation of this slip system is favoured over the basal (a) system, which has a lower critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) at low temperatures, for aggregates with strong Y-maximum orientations. Absence of pervasive crystal-plastic deformation of micas and feldspars during activation of this mechanism also resulted in preservation of mineral chemistries from the highest grades of mylonitic deformation (ie. amphibolite-facies). Retrograde, epidote-amphibolite to greenschist-facies mineral assemblages were pervasively developed in ultramylonites and cataclasites immediately adjacent to the fault core and in footwall-derived mylonites, perhaps during episodic transfer of this material into and subsequently out of the cooler footwall block. In the more distal protomylonites, retrograde assemblages were locally developed along shear bands that also accommodated most of the mylonitic deformation in these rocks. Ti-in-biotite thermometry suggests biotite in these shear bands equilibrated down to ~500+̲50�C, suggesting crystal-plastic deformation of this mineral continued to these temperatures. Crossed-girdle quartz CPO fabrics were formed in these protomylonites by basal (a) dominant slip, indicating a strongly oriented fabric had not previously formed at depth due to the relatively small strains, and that dislocation creep of quartz continued at depths [less than or equal to]20 km. Lineation orientations, CPO fabric symmetry and shear-band fabrics in these protomylonites are consistent with a smaller simple:pure shear strain ratio than that observed closer to the fault core (W[k] [greater than approximately] 0.98), but require a similar total pure shear component. Furthermore, they indicate an increase in the simple shear component with time, consistent with incorporation of new hanging-wall material into the fault zone. Pre-existing lineations were only slowly rotated into coincidence with the mylonitic simple shear direction in the shear bands since they lay close to the simple shear plane, and inherited orientations were not destroyed until large finite strains (<100) were achieved. As the fault rocks were exhumed through the brittle-viscous transition, they experienced localised brittle shear failures. These small-scale seismic events formed friction melts (ie. pseudotachylytes). The volume of pseudotachylyte produced is related to host rock mineralogy (more melt in host rocks containing hydrated minerals), and fabric (more melt in isotropic host rocks). Frictional melting also occurred within cataclastic hosts, indicating the cataclasites around the principal slip surface of the Alpine Fault were produced by multiple episodes of discrete shear rather than distributed cataclastic flow. Pseudotachylytes were also formed in the presence of fluids, suggesting relatively high fault gouge permeabilities were transiently attained, probably during large earthquakes. Frictional melting contributed to formation of phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges, weakening the brittle structure and promoting slip localisation. The location of faulting and pseudotachylyte formation, and the strength of the fault in the brittle regime were strongly influenced by cyclic hydrothermal cementation processes. A thermomechanical model of the central Alpine Fault zone has been defined using the results of this study. The mylonites represent a localised zone of high simple shear strain, embedded in a crustal block that underwent bulk pure shear. The boundaries of the simple shear zone moved into the surrounding material with time. This means that the exhumed sequence does not represent a simple 'time slice' illustrating progressive fault rock development during increasing simple shear strains. The deformation history of the mylonites at deep crustal P-T conditions had a profound influence on subsequent deformation mechanisms and fabric development during exhumation.

This study explored stakeholder behaviour during consultation processes for development, implementation, and evaluation of multi-faceted tourism strategies, using the Victorian Alpine Resorts 2020 Strategy as a case study. Stakeholders were classified using six stakeholder types (Government/Semi-government, Alpine Resort Management Board, Industry Group, Ski Club, Community-based Organisation, Individual) and five behaviour groups (allied, cooperative, neutral, competitive, threatening). An examination was made of stakeholder behaviour across the consultation process from engagement in the development of the Strategy to implementation and in attitude toward participating in an evaluation of the Strategy, behaviour recorded and factors contributing to changing behaviour analysed. Stakeholders displayed complex behaviour patterns moving between behaviour classifications during and across the consultation process. Stakeholder behaviour and commitment to strategy implementation changed; neutral, competitive or threatening behaviour often led to less commitment to strategy success and higher levels of cynicism in the consultation process, allied or cooperative behaviour supported strategy development but did not always lead to a commitment to strategy success. Behaviour toward an evaluation of the strategy often reverted to that exhibited during development. The majority of the stakeholders exhibited behaviour changes in both positive and negative directions and key factors in this change were associated with the consultation process itself to varying degrees of disappointment or satisfaction with the content of the final strategy document. However, negative or positive stakeholder behaviour bore no relation to stakeholder commitment to the Strategy. The findings of this study have added the element of behaviour to stakeholder theory and analysis of stakeholders, which is currently limited to describing and identifying stakeholders. Using this understanding a model of stakeholder behaviour has been developed comprising four behaviour groups (allied, disconnected, guarded and neutral), with indicators of behaviour and suggested consultation strategies to overcome negative responses. The model may facilitate the management of stakeholder consultation processes for positive long-term outcomes, the result of which would be the ongoing support and commitment of stakeholders to strategy or policy development and implementation.

The Bogong High Plains are a series of alpine and subalpine plateaux in NE Victoria. The vegetation of the High Plains consists of woodland, heathland, grassland herbfield and wetland communities. On the better drained sites, the transition from heath dominated communities to grass dominated communities is correlated with gradients of decreasing accumulation and persistence of snow, increasing exposure to wind and low minimum air temperatures, and decreasing steepness and rockiness of terrain. In many areas, shrubs have increased in cover and abundance, especially over the last 50 years. In particular, shrubs have invaded many areas of grassland, which has resulted in an expansion of both open heath and closed heath. The High Plains have been grazed by free ranging cattle each summer since the 1850's, and a primary aim of this thesis is to investigate the dynamics of heathland and grassland, and the impact that cattle grazing has upon these two vegetation types.

The Wanganui-Wilberg landslide lies between Hokitika and Franz Josef townships, at the entrance of Harihari, on the true left bank of the Wanganui River, by State Highway 6. This apparently co-seismic landslide belongs to the class of events called rock avalanches - powerful destructive agents (Keefer, 1984) in the landscape. Other rock avalanches are numerous (Whitehouse, 1983), and widespread over the Southern Alps of New Zealand, and many appear to be co-seismic. De Mets et al. (1994) used the model NUVEL-1A to characterize the motion of the Alpine fault: 37 mm/year at an azimuth of 071° for the strike-slip and a dip-slip of 10 mm/year normal to the strike direction. Although linear when seen from the sky, the detailed morphology of the fault is more complex, called en échelon (Norris and Cooper, 1997). It exhibits metamorphosed schists (mylonite series) in its hanging wall (McCahon, 2007; Korup, 2004). Earthquakes on the Alpine fault have a recurrence time of c. 200-300 years and a probability of occurrence within 100 years of 88% (Rhoades and Van Dissen, 2002). Thought to have been triggered by the AD1220 event (determined by dendrochronology), the Wanganui-Wilberg rock avalanche deposit represents only 20% of its original volume, which was c. 33 million cubic metres. The deposit probably dammed the Wanganui River and, as a result, created a small and short-lived lake upstream. The next earthquake capable of triggering such events is likely to occur fairly soon (Yetton, 1998). Knowledge of historic catastrophic events such as the Wanganui-Wilberg rock avalanche is of crucial importance in the development of future hazard and management plans.

Lic.-avh. Härnösand Uppsala : Mitthögskolan : Sveriges lantbruksuniv. : 2001. / Härtill 2 uppsatser.