Carbon emissions are one of the primary drivers of climate change and the transport sector accounts for 24% of the global carbon emissions. A shift within the automobile industry towards more eco-friendly modes of transportation is hence needed. Vehicles powered by hydrogen are a carbon emissions-free mode of transportation and have been identified as a viable approach to de-carbonize the transport sector, yet, the number of hydrogen-powered vehicles on the roads in Sweden as of 2022 is relatively low compared to the rest of the world. The aim of this study was both to identify factors that are important for actors to invest in hydrogen technology within the transport sector, and to identify how the collaboration between different actors was formed during the adoption process. The study uses a multiple-case study research design where the five cases of Storuman, Mariestad, Sandviken, Trelleborg and Ljungby were selected. Data was collected through eleven semi-structured interviews over video calls. The study has examined the diffusion process of hydrogen technology within the transport sector of each case according to the diffusion of innovations theory. An analysis of the diffusion of hydrogen technology has not, to the best of my knowledge, been conducted in the examined cases. Gaining an understanding of these processes can provide guidance for other municipalities or actors who aims to reduce their emissions and can play an important role in achieving Sweden´s objective of becoming the world´s first fossil-free welfare nation. The findings of the study were that investments in hydrogen technology within the transport sector are currently not economically profitable. However, investments in the innovation were still motivated in terms of a relative environmental advantage, reception of financial funding, the will to take a leading role in the energy transition, geographical location, long-term economic benefits and indirect economic benefits which mainly include that the municipality can market themselves as green and progressive in order to attract competent workforce and business opportunities. The study also concluded that local political support is an important pre-condition for a successful adoption of the innovation.

Presently, heavy-duty trucks are responsible for approximately 25% of global CO2 emissions. Although the world seems to incline towards the transport sector's electrification, the electrification of long-range freight trucks is profoundly challenging. The dominant disincentives are the required infrastructure, cost/size of batteries, limited mileage, and long charging sessions. However, despite the efforts to reduce emissions, current trends indicate that these continue to rise, mostly because of the continually increasing freight transit. Regional economies are heavily dependent on the latter. Thus, the imminent depletion of fossil fuels and the emerging environmental issues are disquieting aspects for the sustainability of this crucial sector. This thesis focuses on the possible alternative powertrain/drivetrain solutions for heavy-duty, long-range freight trucks in conjunction with sustainable energy carriers for the transportation sector overall. In terms of viable fuelling alternatives, the following are being reviewed: Electric Power, Bio-Fuels, and Synthetic Fuels, along with their current status, advantages, disadvantages and future prospects. In terms of powertrain/drivetrain alternatives, the following are being theoretically and critically evaluated and compared against a direct drive conventional Diesel engine truck (25.2% wheel efficiency): Battery Electric, Electric powered with overhead cables or underground conductive coils, combined Gas Turbine/Stirling Engine Hybrid Electric in series, combined Diesel engine/Stirling engine Hybrid Electric in series, and Diesel engine Hybrid Electric in series.  It is concluded that the best scenario for future freight trucks, is the use of an electric drivetrain/powertrain in conjunction with overhead powering cables along the highways. However, due to uncertainties in the universal realization of such infrastructure, to ensure uninterrupted transportation of goods, a plausible transitional solution could be the use of a Diesel engine/Stirling engine Hybrid Electric in series technology. This could reduce emissions/consumption by a factor of 2.4 (60% wheel efficiency). For the case of Gas turbine/Stirling engine and Diesel engine (both) Hybrid Electric in-series arrangements, this factor drops to 1.7 and 1.4 (42.9% and 34.3% wheel efficiency), respectively. Furthermore, this can be a clean and sustainable solution if biofuels are employed as the prime energy carriers. Such an approach is future-proof for use with overhead cables, since the suggested powertrain is electric, rendering a freight truck as a very versatile heavy-duty, long-range vehicle. Electro-fuels are not considered as a viable option due to their inefficient formulation, elevated costs, and problematic handling (Hydrogen).

Le secteur du transport joue un rôle majeur dans le changement climatique et la pollution atmosphérique. Parmi les secteurs d'origine anthropique, le transport routier est considéré comme le premier contributeur au réchauffement climatique, due notamment aux émissions de CO2, de précurseurs d'ozone, et d'aérosols carbonés (carbone noir). De plus, les émissions liées au transport routier telles que les oxydes d'azote (NOx), l'ammoniac (NH3), les carbonyles volatiles, les hydrocarbures gazeux, et les aérosols, contribuent à la dégradation de la qualité de l'air.Le but de cette étude était d'approfondir l'état des connaissances en termes de facteurs d'émissions associés au transport, pour les polluants en phases gazeuse et solide. Un intérêt particulier a été apporté sur l'influence des systèmes de post-traitement des gaz d'échappement, et de la qualité du carburant, sur les émissions d'espèces réglementées et non-réglementées. Des campagnes de mesure ont été menées sur différentes catégories de véhicules dans le laboratoire d'étude des émissions (VELA) du centre commun de recherche de la commission Européenne (JRC-EC) à Ispra, en Italie. La flotte de véhicules choisie comprenait des camions (moyens et poids lourds), des voitures et des deux-roues formant un ensemble représentatif des véhicules circulant en Europe. En plus des carburants classiques, essence et diesel, les véhicules ont été alimentés avec des carburants alternatifs tels que le bioéthanol, et le gaz de pétrole liquéfié. Les émissions en phase gazeuse ont été mesurées par spectroscopie infra-rouge à transformé de Fourier (FT-IR; pour les composés azotés, les carbonyles volatiles et les petits hydrocarbures), par spectrométrie de masse à temps de vol après ionisation multi-photonique résonnante (REMPI-ToF-MS; pour les hydrocarbures aromatiques mono et polycycliques), par spectromètrie de masse haute résolution à temps de vol dédié à l'analyse des aérosols atmosphériques (HR-TOF-AMS; pour les aérosols organiques), et par photométrie d'absorption multi-angle (MAAP; pour le carbone élémentaire).Parmi les véhicules étudiés, les scooters ont été les plus gros émetteurs d'aérosols organiques primaires et d'hydrocarbures mono et polycycliques. De plus, le système de post-traitement des gaz d'échappement étudié pour le scooter le plus récent (conforme à la réglementation Euro 2) pourrait être responsable d'émissions importantes d'aérosols organiques. Concernant les voitures, et en particulier celles équipées de moteurs à allumage par étincelle, la plupart de leurs émissions intervenaient en début de cycle, avant que la température d'amorçage du pot catalytique soit atteinte. Ces émissions liées au démarrage à froid du véhicule pouvaient masquer les effets bénéfiques des carburants alternatifs en terme d'émissions de précurseurs d'ozone. Finalement, les camions étaient les plus gros émetteurs de suie (carbone élémentaire) et de NOx. Malgré le fait que plusieurs systèmes de retrofit se sont montrés particulièrement efficaces pour réduire les émissions des polluants réglementés (particules et NOx) de ces véhicules, certains d'entre eux produisaient des quantités significatives de NH3. Ce projet a permis de collecter des informations précieuses pour l'élaboration de la législation relative au développement d'un transport durable en Europe. / Transport sector plays a key role in global warming and air pollution. Among the anthropogenic sectors, on-road transport is recognized as the first contributor to global warming, mainly due to its emission of carbon dioxide, ozone precursors and carbonaceous aerosols. In addition, on-road transport contributes to the deterioration of air quality by releasing nitrogen oxides, ammonia, carbonyls, hydrocarbons and aerosols. However, the current European legislation of vehicles emissions focusses on a limited number of pollutants, namely hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.The aim of this work was to improve the knowledge about the emission factors of gas phase and particle-associated emissions from vehicle exhaust. The impacts of aftertreatment devices and fuel quality on regulated and unregulated species were studied. Several sampling campaigns with different types of vehicles were conducted in the vehicle emission laboratory (VELA) at the European Commission Joint Research Centre (EC-JRC) Ispra, Italy. The vehicles chosen were representative of some categories circulating in Europe (heavy duty vehicles, light duty vehicles, two-stroke mopeds), and either standard fuel or some alternative fuels (ethanol and liquefied petroleum gas) were used. The gas phase was monitored by a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (carbonyls, nitrogen-containing species, small hydrocarbons), and a resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer (mono and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). The particulate phase was analyzed by a high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (organic aerosol, chloride, nitrate), and a multiangle absorption photometer (black carbon). The mopeds were found to have the higher emission factors of primary organic aerosol and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. While efficient to reduce the regulated emissions, the after-treatment used to comply with the moped Euro 2 emission standard might be responsible of large emission of unregulated organic aerosols. Most of the emission linked to the gasoline light duty vehicles were released before the light-off of the catalyst. Whereas alternative fuels studied helped to reduce ozone precursor emissions, the emissions associated to the cold start of the vehicle reduced this beneficial effect. Finally, the heavy duty diesel vehicle featured the highest NOx and black carbon emissions. Despite efficient retrofit and after-treatment systems (for particles and NOx), these vehicles could release significant amount of NH3. These results provided valuable insights for the drafting of legislation related to the achievement of sustainable transport in Europe.

The dissertation thesis is focused on the investigation of the influence of inert gases on characteristic parameters of the combustion process. Inert gases are usually standard components of alternative gaseous fuels such as the producer gas, coal gas or biogas. For a long period some of the fuels were considered as waste gases and their potential was not sufficiently utilised. Compared with noble fuels such as natural gas, alternative fuels have different physical-chemical properties. For example, their lower heating value (LHV) can be lower even than 10 MJ/mN3. The composition of the alternative gaseous fuels can be various during their production process. Lower LHV is a result of the occurrence of inert gases that does not take a part in the combustion reactions. Inert gases have the ability to accumulate the heat. Under certain conditions it is possible to combust alternative fuels on conventional burners, but due to their different properties, problems can occur during the combustion. E.g. to achieve the same heat output as with the noble fuel, it is necessary to burn bigger volume of the alternative fuel. However, the limiting factor could be the burner's head geometry. Theoretical introduction of the thesis summarizes research results in the field of low calorific gaseous fuels combustion and the addition of inert gases into the noble fuels. The thesis also describes the mechanisms of the NOx formation and summarizes techniques which can be used to reduce NOx formation. Furthermore, fuels from alternative sources are categorized and described, including their composition and characteristics. Their physical-chemical properties were obtained by means of the combustion simulation carried out in the simulation software. Two devices had to be designed and manufactured to fulfil goals of the dissertation thesis. The first is a gas mixing station capable of mixing 4 different components. The second device is a burner utilized for the combustion of low calorific fuels. The key section of this thesis is a chapter describing the experimental plan, the performance and the evaluation of the experiments. The goal of the experiments was to dilute the natural gas by two inert gases, namely carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The lowest LHV value achieved during the experiment was 10,7 MJ/mN3. The influence of the inert gases on the NOx emissions, the flame stability and characteristics, the flue gas temperature, the in-flame temperatures, the heat flux and the thermal efficiency was investigated and evaluated. Each parameter was measured and evaluated for three different burners: the burner with the staged gas, the burner with the staged air and the burner for low calorific fuels. Generally, after the addition of the inert gas into the noble fuel, the in-flame temperatures decreased. As a consequence, the NOx emissions decreased as well. The effects of carbon dioxide on the investigated combustion parameters were more substantial than the effects of nitrogen. Each measured parameter is strongly dependent on the burner geometry. The experiments revealed that in most cases the addition of the inert gas into the fuel influenced the flame length (flame shortened) and also more heat was transfered into the chamber's walls closer to the burner tile.

Denna studie har kartlagt vilka drivmedel som användes av svenska handelsflottans fartyg från 2016 och hur stor andel som inte var petroleumbaserad. Fokus riktades mot Linnéuniversitetets sjöingenjörsprogram där en analys av kursplaners mål samt innehåll belyste om alternativa drivmedel fanns inkluderat i utbildningen. Respondenterna på sjöingenjörsprogrammet var delaktiga i en intervjustudie som klargjorde om framtidsutsikter för realisering av alternativa drivmedel var möjlig. Resultaten visade att det fanns tre alternativa drivmedel inom svenska sjöfarten, där inga kurser hade direkt koppling men genom ledord fanns tre kurser med relevans till alternativa drivmedel. Det fanns ett gemensamt mål inom respondenterna på Linnéuniversitetet om alternativa drivmedel men vägen till förverkligande var inte klarsynt. / A few years ago, marine diesel and heavy fuel oil were the fuels that drove shipsforward. But with new legal requirements and climate goals, other potential fuelshave seen the light of day. These alternative fuels have resulted in an increase in thesystems you need knowledge of on board. The purpose of the study is to focus onhow the education to become a marine engineer keeps up with the rapidtechnological development that is taking place today.The study was carried out in several stages where document studies were compiledand became the basis for an interview study. The first document study resulted inwhat fuel the Swedish merchant fleet's newer ships use. In addition to marine dieseland heavy oil, alternative fuels such as liquid natural gas, methanol and batteryoperation are also used. These alternative fuels are used or can be used on about athird of the surveyed ships today.The second document study was done against the marine engineering program tosee if there was any connection to alternative fuels in the education's syllabuses. Nodirect connection was found, but by using key words for alternative fuels, threecourses were found with content that could be associated with the alternative fuels.The results of the document studies formed the basis for an interview study in whichpersonnel linked to the marine engineering education at the Linnaeus Universitywere interviewed. The result of the interview study was that all respondents agreedthat education is needed in the alternative fuels that have arrived. However, therespondents did not agree on what the training should look like, as there were manydifferent education proposals. Since there were also expressions from respondentsabout time, knowledge, and resource shortages, they need to reach an agreementwith a way forward to be able to secure the educational efforts towards a commongoal.

The growing municipal solid waste generation rates have necessitated more efficient, optimized waste collection facilities. The majority of the US collection fleet is composed of diesel-fueled vehicles which contribute significant atmospheric emissions including greenhouse gases. In order to reduce emissions to the atmosphere, more collection agencies are investigating alternative fuel technologies such as natural gas, biofuels (bio-gas and bio-diesel), and hybrid electric technology. This research is an in-depth environmental analysis of potential alternative fuel technologies for waste collection vehicles. This study will evaluate the use of alternative fuels by waste collection vehicles. Lifecycle emissions, cost, fuel and energy consumption were evaluated for a wide range of fossil and bio-fuel technologies. Moreover, the energy consumption and the tail-pipe emissions of dieselfueled waste collection vehicles were estimated using MOVES 2010a software. Emission factors were calculated for a typical waste collection driving cycle as well as constant speed. Finally, the selection of fuel type by the waste collection industry requires consideration of environmental, security, financial, operational, and safety issues. In this study, a qualitative comparison between alternative fuels was performed; a multifactorial assessment of these factors was conducted taking into account the opinion of the waste collection industry of the importance of each factor. Liquid-petroleum fuels have higher life-cycle emissions compared to natural gas; however landfill natural gas has the lowest life-cycle emissions compared to all other fuel categories. Compressed natural gas waste collection vehicles have the lowest fuel cost per collection vehicle mile travel compared to other fuel categories. Moreover, the actual driving cycle of waste collection vehicles consists of repetitive stops and starts during waste collection; iv this generates more emissions than constant speed driving. Finally, the multifactorial assessment indicates that natural gas and landfill gas have better environmental, economical, and energy security performance than current liquid-petroleum fuels.

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This master thesis will be part of a larger project called Sustainable Energy Transition in Aviation (SETA), which will be done in collaboration with the Division of Sustainability, Industrial Dynamics and Entrepreneurship (SIDE) at INDEK. The overall thesis aims to contribute to accelerate the energy transition within the aviation sector, with a focus on three technologies: bio-based jet fuels, hydrogen fuels and electrical aircraft. Moving on, this research project is being pursued because aviation is one of the most important CO2 emitters in Sweden. Indeed it accounts for 5% of total Swedish emissions (Klimatpolitiska Rådet, 2020). Due to its complexity as a socio technical system and its tight interrelations between its components, aviation is struggling to change. Therefore, a transformative pressure is raising in order to meet 2030 and 2045 targets. The aim of the research is to highlight how the introduction of alternative fuels and technologies might help aviation to reach carbon neutrality. Moreover, the aviation industry could be classified as a socio-technical system, thereby a conceptual framework was used to better analyze its transition. The Multi-Level Perspective framework (MLP) was thus applied with the intent of describing how the sustainable energy transformation will happen at the different levels. Through interviews it was possible to underline the different challenges within the aviation system, while also highlighting future scenarios of the air transport sector. Furthermore, by developing a modelling analysis through the LEAP software, it was possible to hypothesized several scenarios where biofuels, hydrogen and electric airplanes growth varies under specific assumptions. Finally, the analysis highlighted that the introduction of these alternative technologies will be crucial to support aviation in its green transformation. Indeed, between year 2015 and 2045, the total emissions from the analyzed transport sector were reduced by 90%. Therefore, aviation will essentially need these new technologies in order to transform and become greener. / Detta examensarbete kommer att ingå i ett större projekt som heter Sustainable Energy Transition in Aviation (SETA), vilket kommer att göras i samarbete med avdelningen för hållbarhet, industriell dynamik och entreprenörskap (SIDE) vid INDEK. Den övergripande avhandlingen syftar till att bidra till att påskynda energiövergången inom flygsektorn, med fokus på tre tekniker: biobaserade jetbränslen, vätgasbränslen och elektriska flygplan. Detta forskningsprojekt pågår eftersom luftfarten skapar stora mängder koldioxidutsläpp i Sverige. Det står för 5% av de totala svenska utsläppen (Klimatpolitiska Rådet, 2020). På grund av dess komplexitet som ett sociotekniskt system och dess snäva samband mellan komponenter, kämpar luftfarten för att förändras. Därför ökar ett transformerande tryck för att nå 2030 och 2045 mål. Syftet med forskningen är att belysa hur införandet av alternativa bränslen och tekniker kan hjälpa luftfarten att nå koldioxidneutralitet. Dessutom kan flygindustrin klassificeras som ett socio-tekniskt system, varigenom en konceptuell ram användes för att bättre analysera dess övergång. Multi-Level Perspective Framework (MLP) tillämpades således med avsikten att beskriva hur den hållbara energiomvandlingen kommer att ske på de olika nivåerna. Genom intervjuer var det möjligt att ta fram de olika utmaningarna inom flygsystemet, samtidigt som man framhävde framtida scenarier inom lufttransportsektorn. Genom att utveckla en modelleringsanalys genom LEAPprogramvaran var det dessutom möjligt att hypotisera flera scenarier där biodrivmedel, väte och elektriska flygplanstillväxt varierar under specifika antaganden. Slutligen visade analysen att införandet av dessa alternativa tekniker kommer att vara avgörande för att stödja luftfarten i dess gröna omvandling. Mellan 2015 och 2045 minskade de totala utsläppen från den analyserade transportsektorn med 90%. Därför kommer luftfarten i huvudsak att behöva dessa nya tekniker för att förändras och bli grönare.

Climate change is raising huge challenges for all industries worldwide. It is mainly due to anthropogenic activity and energy consumption which is the cause for emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) among other environmental impacts and is expected to have huge impact on our societies globally. Of those global GHG emissions, around a quarter is emitted by transportations of all kinds as transportation relies heavily on fossil fuels. If the past years have seen a rising share of electrification within the passenger car industry, the commercial transportation isn’t that prone to electrification and other pathway to decarbonization are studied. Shipping is responsible for around 90% of the world commercial transportation work and therefore is a keyplayer in the transition toward low carbon transportation. It relies exclusively on fossil fuels with different kinds of oil-based fuels being the historical fuel suppliers and has seen a quick increase of the share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in the past decade. Yet the international maritime organization (IMO) has set ambitious emission reduction targets for shipping and alternative fuel technologies are considered to be a relevant pathway if not the most promising pathway to low carbon or even zero carbon shipping. This study aims at evaluating and comparing different alternative fuels pathways available to perform the shift toward low carbon fuel technologies within Swedish short sea shipping (SSS) and inland waterway transportation (IWT) based on a set of criteria designed to reflect all aspects of the implementation of an alternative fuel pathway implementation. Those criteria are divided into 5 different categories which are technological, technical, economic, environmental, and finally social. There are 2 main categories to consider for low carbon fuels, biofuels and electrofuels. Fossil fuels are also included within the study so that the alternative pathways get compared not only with one another but also with the current marine fuels. The first comparison between different alternative fuel pathways is relevant to choose the most promising and feasible one while the comparison between a chosen alternative fuelpathway and the main marine fossil fuels is what stakeholders will look at when considering an alternativefuel pathway implementation challenge. The electrofuels included within the comparison are ammonia and hydrogen within 2 similar pathways which include production using water electrolysis and renewableelectricity (the carbon intensity of the Swedish grid is considered) before consumption within fuel cells (FC)instead of internal combustion engines (ICE). Those electrofuels end up with the last ranks within the comparison due to low technological maturity, technical and economic challenges remaining and social issued to address despite being the most environmentally promising pathways. Biofuel’s pathways on the other hand include both fischer tropsch diesel (FTD) and bio-methanol production using as feedstock various mixes of black liquor (BL) andpyrolysis oil (PO). FTD ends up as the most promising alternative fuel pathway within the whole studywhile bio-methanol appears more challenging but also more promising toward environmental criteria. / Klimatförändringarna innebär stora utmaningar för alla branscher världen över. Den beror främst på antropogen aktivitet och energikonsumtion som orsakar utsläpp av växthusgaser bland andra miljöeffekter och förväntas få stora konsekvenser för våra samhällen globalt. Av de globala utsläppen av växthusgaser kommer omkring en fjärdedel från alla typer av transporter, eftersom transporterna är starkt beroende avfossila bränslen. Under de senaste åren har man sett en ökande andel elektrifiering inom personbilsindustrin,men kommersiella transporter är inte lika benägna att elektrifieras och andra vägar till avkolning studeras. Sjöfarten står för cirka 90 % av världens kommersiella transportarbete och är därför en nyckelspelare i övergången till koldioxidsnåla transporter. Den är uteslutande beroende av fossila bränslen med olika typer av oljebaserade bränslen som historiska bränsleleverantörer och har sett en snabb ökning av andelen flytande naturgas (LNG) under det senaste decenniet. Internationella sjöfartsorganisationen (IMO) har dock fastställt ambitiösa mål för minskning av utsläppen för sjöfarten, och tekniker för alternativa bränslen anses vara enr elevant väg, om inte den mest lovande, för att uppnå en sjöfart med låga koldioxidutsläpp eller till och med utan koldioxidutsläpp. Syftet med denna studie är att utvärdera och jämföra olika alternativa bränslen som finns tillgängliga för att genomföra övergången till bränsleteknik med låga koldioxidutsläpp inom svensk närsjöfart (SSS) och transport på inre vattenvägar (IWT) utifrån en uppsättning kriterier som är utformade för att återspegla alla aspekter av genomförandet av en alternativ bränslesatsning. Dessa kriterier är indelade i fem olika kategorier som är tekniska, tekniska, ekonomiska, miljömässiga och slutligen sociala. Det finns två huvudkategorier att ta hänsyn till när det gäller bränslen med låga koldioxidutsläpp, nämligen biobränslen och elektrobränslen. Fossila bränslen ingår också i studien så att de alternativa vägarna inte bara jämförs med varandra utan också med de nuvarande marina bränslena. Den första jämförelsen mellan olika alternativa bränslevägar är relevant för att välja den mest lovande och genomförbara, medan jämförelsen mellan en vald alternativ bränsleväg och de viktigaste marina fossila bränslena är vad intressenterna kommer att titta på när de överväger att genomföra en alternativ bränsleväg. De elektrobränslen som ingår i jämförelsen är ammoniak och vätgas inom två liknande vägar som omfattar produktion med hjälp av vattenelektrolys och förnybar el (det svenska elnätets koldioxidintensitet beaktas) innan de förbrukas i bränsleceller i stället för i förbränningsmotorer. Dessa elektrobränslen hamnar på de sista platserna i jämförelsen på grund av låg teknisk mognad, återstående tekniska och ekonomiska utmaningar och sociala problem som måste lösas, trots att de är de miljömässigt mest lovande vägarna. Biobränslevägar omfattar å andra sidan både fischer tropsch diesel(FTD) och produktion av biometanol med olika blandningar av svartlut (BL) och pyrolysolja (PO) som råmaterial. FTD är den mest lovande alternativa bränslevägen i hela studien, medan bio-metanol verkar vara en större utmaning men också mer lovande när det gäller miljökriterier.