This thesis argues that (1) Paul’s instructions in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 are coherent and consistent, and (2) that the apostle’s instructions does not express his departure from Judaism. For many years, scholars working on 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 have struggled to explain how these two chapters are connected and what Paul’s instructions within the two chapters are. I present a new reading of 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 where I argue that these chapters are connected in a coherent way and that Paul deals with two separate, yet connected, contexts in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10. In 1 Corinthians 8, he instructs the Corinthian Christ followers that they can take part in the dinners that often followed an animal sacrifice in antiquity, as long as it does not present an issue to another Christ followers. The key reason for this is the social capital at stake, would they not partake in these dinners. In 1 Corinthians 10, Paul tells the Christ followers that they cannot participate at the altar when animals are sacrificed. Doing so would be a violation against their exclusive relationship with the god of Israel and Jesus Christ. Many have read 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 as evidence for Paul’s departure from Judaism. I push back against this understanding by placing Paul’s instructions in the wider web of Jewish literature from the Second Temple period and the early rabbinic period. By comparing Paul’s instructions in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 to texts from these time periods, it becomes clear that Paul is part of an ongoing Jewish conversation about how someone could remain faithful to the god of Israel while living in a gentile society. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy / In this thesis, I examine Paul’s instructions regarding various level of engagement in gentile cults in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10. My thesis contributes to a new reading of these two chapters and I argue that 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 deal with two distinct, yet connected, issues. In the former chapter, Paul instructs Christ followers on how they should act when dining in temples dedicated to idols (something he in principle allows); in the latter, he instructs them to avoid all participation at the altar where the sacrifice takes place. By recognizing these two different contexts, Paul’s instructions in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 become more understandable, coherent, and consistent. In addition, I argue that Paul’s instructions should be read within the wider context of Second Temple Judaism and early rabbinic Judaism, and not as evidence that Paul left Judaism.

This thesis examines the wetland sacrifices that were performed in Northern Europe in the Iron Age. Skedemosse on central Öland is the largest wetland sacrifice in Sweden and was the site of a cult which sacrificed animals and humans. Between the late second century and well into the fifth century the place was also used for large sacrifices of military equipment. New radiocarbon dates has shown that the place functioned as a ritual place from the Pre Roman Iron Age and into the Late Viking Age. Both in the Iron Age and later wetlands seem to have been both venerated and feared and the thesis discusses why this came to be, and how it can be seen in the archaeological material. A smaller part of the sacrificial site of Skedemosse was selected for a closer study and it was possible to establish several depositions which appear to have been treated slightly different from each other. The investigations of the animal sacrifices have focused on the horses as they are the most common animal. The horse was an important mythological animal in the Iron Age and they were equally important in the cult. The horses in Skedemosse were eaten in ritual meals, and it is possible that some of them took part in ritual races along the ridge east of the former lake.  Such races were called skeið and the name Skedemosse may be derived from this word. Skedemosse is also rare because the remains of ca 38 people have been found in it. Some of these people have suffered a violent death. They are compared to other bog bodies from northern Europe and the follow a similar pattern to those; In the Pre Roman Iron Age mainly women and children were sacrificed and after the first century AD mainly men ended up in the lake.

Thesis (D. Phil.)--Stockholm University, 1999. / Publication has two ISBNs. Theses - Department of Classical Archaeology and Ancient History. Includes bibliographical references and index.

The Christian Rejection of Animal Sacrifice and the New-Testament Conception of the Christ's Death Abstract The thesis describes the relationship between the phenomenon of the animal sacrifice and the death of Jesus Christ. At the beginning of my study, I explain the basic interpretative categories that can help answer the role and substance of the blood sacrifice practice in the context of ritual activities of the archaic civilizations. Particular attention is paid to the Old Testament cult, because the sacrificial terminology, originating from this milieu, served within the framework of the New Testament canon as one of the fundamental ways to express Jesus Christ's death mystery. The thesis follows up on modern anthropological theories of the animal sacrifice; in comparison with the specific Christian concept of the sacrifice, it shows how Christ's unritual death and forms of its appropriation by believers might be considered the fulfillment and surpassing of all existing forms of sacrifice. Keywords Animal sacrifice, Christ's death, soteriology, ritual practices, Christian explanotory schemes of sacrifice

Thesis (DTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2001 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The dissertation aims to establish to what extent the Old Testament could be interpreted from an African perspective, using the scapegoat sacrifice in Leviticus 16 and the Nefo'o ritual of the Bafut of Cameroon as relevant examples. Because sacrificial practice was a normal occurrence in the religions of the Israelites (Old Testament) and those of other nations - and African society in particular - questions are raised that require urgent answers, namely: Is it possible to identify any elements of sacrifice from the African background, and specifically the Nefo'o ritual of the Bafut of Cameroon, which may facilitate the theological interpretation and understanding of the Old Testament. The approach employed is a qualitative methodology with the sub-category of participant observation. We also used a socio-rhetorical interpretation approach to the Old Testament text of Leviticus 16. When the above-mentioned two rituals are compared, they portray aspects of both similarities and dissimilarities. The work has been divided into the following seven chapters: Chapter one introduces the topic through the identification and the development of the problem. Some concepts and keywords from the title are discussed in the contexts of the Bafut of Cameroon and ancient Israel. Chapter two provides the background to the Nefo'o ritual of the Bafut of Cameroon, tracing both the origins of the Bafut people and the Nefo'o ritual. The Bukari people, the aborigines of the tribe and the seat of the Nefo'o shrine are highlighted. Chapter three presents a survey of sacrifices in West Africa, the ancient Near East and Israel. Special attention is reserved to the sacrificial systems of the ancient Israelites. Chapter four gives a brief introduction to the Pentateuch with special treatment of the modern trends in the study of the pentateuchal sources and the theologies of the authors. This is to situate the book of Leviticus in the Pentateuch with which we are concerned. Chapter five presents an introduction to the book of Leviticus and examines its significance among the other pentateuchal books. Attention is given to certain recurrent theological themes in the book and its implication for Leviticus chapter 16. Chapter six provides a socio-rhetorical interpretation of the text of Leviticus 16, with special attention to the establishment of the Day of Atonement and the scapegoat sacrifice. Specific attention was paid to the significance of atonement in Lev. 16. Chapter seven compares the scapegoat sacrifice of Leviticus 16 and the Nefo'o ritual of the Bafut of Cameroon. This is followed by a theological interpretation of the Nefo'o ritual and a summary of the results and conclusions. African theologians - whose own cultures possess a great deal of ritual practices - have not given enough attention to a contextual interpretation of the Scriptures of the Old Testament. The biblical faith has to exist among African Traditional Religions and other cultural practices. Some contextual interpretation of the Scriptures of the Old Testament is being suggested. Such aspects as the Nefo'o shrine, which is situated in the midst of the Bafut community, could be seen to explain the Tent of Meeting among the Israelites. Other aspects include the priest, the community, the ancestors and the release of the live goat into the woods, bearing the sins of the people. Thus the Nefo'o ritual can be used as an analogy to explain the biblical understanding of atonement in an African context. Leviticus 16 is not only the centre of the book of Leviticus but also the centre of the Pentateuch (Torah). Atonement can also be seen to be the theological heart of the Old Testament and of the whole Bible. Thus it is crucial to communicate this in an African environment using all the hermenuetical tools available. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie dissertasie is daarop gemik om te bepaal tot watter mate die Ou Testament vanuit In Afrika-perspektief geinterpreteer kan word met gebruikmaking van die sondebokofferande, soos beskryf in Levitikus 16 en die Nefo'o ritueel van die Bafut bevolking van Kameroen as betrokke voorbeelde. Omdat die bring van offerandes normale praktyk in die godsdienste van die Israeliete (soos beskryf in die Ou Testament) en van ander nasies - en spesifiek van Afrika-gemeenskappe - is, ontlok dit vrae wat dringend beantwoord behoort te word. Is dit moontlik om daardie elemente van offerande vanuit In Afrika-perspektief - en spesifiek vanuit die oogpunt van die Nefo'o ritueeI van die Bafut van Kameroen - te identifiseer wat kan bydra tot die teologiese interpretasie en begrip van die Ou Testament? Die benadering wat gevolg word, is 'n kwalitatiewe metodologie, met die sub-kategorie van deelnemende waarneming. Ons het ook In sosio-retoriese interpretasie benadering tot die Ou Testamentiese teks van Levitikus 16 gevolg. Wanneer die bovermelde twee rituele met mekaar vergelyk word, openbaar hulle aspekte van sowel ooreenkomste as van verskille. Die werk is die volgende sewe hoofstukke verdeel: Hoofstuk een lei die onderwerp in deur die identifisering en die ontwikkeling van die probleem. Sekere begrippe vervat in die sleutelwoorde van die titel word bespreek in die kontekste van die Bafut van Kameroen en van anti eke Israel. Hoofstuk twee bied In agtergrond aan tot die Nefo'o ritueel van die Bafut bevolking van Kameroen, waarin die oorsprong van sowel die Bafut bevolking as van die Nefo'o ritueel nagegaan word. Die Bukari bevolking, wat die oorspronklike inwoners was en die setel van die Nefo'o altaar word beskrywe. Hoofstuk drie bevat In oorsig van offerandes in Wes-Afrika, die anti eke Nabye Ooste en Israel. Spesiale aandag word geskenk aan die offerande stelsels van die anti eke Israeliete. Hoofstuk vier is In kort inleiding tot die Pentateug, met spesiale verwysing na die moderne tendense in die studie van Pentateugverwante bronne en die teologiese uitgangspunte van die skrywers. Dit word gedoen om die posisie van die boek van Levitikus, waarmee ons bowenal gemoeid is, in die Pentateug te bepaal. Hoofstuk vyf bied In kort inleiding tot die boek van Levitikus en gaan sy betekenis na teen die agtergrond van die ander boeke Vall die Pentateug. Aandag word geskenk aan sekere herhalende teologiese temas in die boek en die implikasies daarvan vir Levitikus 16. Hoofstuk ses bevat 'n sosio-retoriese interpretasie van die inhoud van Levitikus 16, met spesiale verwysing na die instelling van die Versoendag en die offerande van die sondebok. Spesifieke aandag word geskenk aan die rol van boetedoening in Levitikus 16. Hoofstuk sewe vergelyk die sondebok offerande van Levitikus 16 en die Nefo'o ritueel van die Bafut van Kameroen. Dit word gevolg deur 'n teologiese interpretasie van die Nefo'o ritueel, 'n 'n opsomming van die praktyke en ook gevolgtrekkings. Afrika-teoloe, wie se eie kulture oor 'n ryke mate van rituele praktyke beskik, het tot dusver nie voldoende aandag aan 'n kontekstuele interpretasie van die Ou Testament geskenk nie. Die Bybelse geloof moet steeds in naasbestaan met die tradisionele Afrika-gelowe en ander kulturele praktyke staan. 'n Sekere kontekstuele interpretasie van die Ou Testamentiese geskrifte word aan die hand gedoen. Seker aspekte, soos die Nefo'o altaar, wat midde in die Bafut gemeenskap gelee is, kan met die ontmoetingstent van die Israeliete vergelyk word. Ander punte van ooreenkomste en verskille tussen die Bafut en die anti eke Israeliete, sluit in priesters, die gemeenskap, voorouers, en die vrylating in die woud van die lewendige bok wat die sondes van die bevolking dra. Dus kan die Nefo'o ritueel as 'n analogie vir die verduideliking van die Bybelse begrip van versoening in 'n Afrika-konteks aangewend word. Levitikus 16 is nie slegs die kern van die hele boek van Levitikus nie, maar inderdaad ook van die hele Pentateug (Torah). Versoening kan ook as die teologiese kern van die Ou Testament van die hele Bybel gereken word. Daarom is dit noodsaaklik om hierdie begrip in 'n Afrika-konteks te kan kommunikeer met die aanwending van aile beskikbare hermeneutiese hulpmiddele.

The research focuses on the use of animals in ritual deposits. It is based in the analysis of the faunal remains recovered from the internal funerary and ritual structures carved in the clay, in the site of the Early Bronze Age of Can Roqueta II (Sabadell, Barcelona). The results show that children, women and men were buried together in a very similar ceremony and accompanied by animals. Sheep and goats, cows, pigs and dogs are the best-represented, although carnivores and birds are also documented. While many of these animals were offered as a meal to accompany the deceased on his journey, the dogs, which were not consumed, were probably sacrificed as guides of the soul. The research aims to show that animal sacrifice is a universal response to death, with slight differences that probably reflect cultural and social adjustments. / La investigación se centra en la utilización de los animales en depósitos rituales. Se basa en el análisis de los restos faunísticos recuperados del interior de estructuras funerarias y rituales excavadas en la arcilla del asentamiento de la edad del bronce inicial de Can Roqueta II (Sabadell, Barcelona). Los resultados muestran que niños, mujeres y hombres eran enterrados de forma muy similar y acompañados de animales sacrificados. Ovejas y cabras, vacas, cerdos y perros son los mejor representados, aunque también se documentan carnívoros y varias especies de aves. Mientras que muchos de estos animales se ofrecían como comida de acompañamiento al difunto en su viaje, los perros, que no se consumían, se sacrificaban probablemente como guías de las almas. La investigación propone mostrar que el sacrificio animal es una respuesta universal a la muerte, con leves diferencias que responden seguramente a adaptaciones culturales y sociales.

The dominant emphasis in Western models of bereavement is on the breaking of bonds with the deceased in order for healing to occur. Failure to let go often leads to a diagnosis of 'pathological grief'. This paper challenges the assumption that death invariably means that the bonds with the deceased have to be severed. Situating Western models of bereavement in a modernist context not only challenges the 'truth' claims of these models, but also facilitates a deconstruction of the elements that contribute to the emphasis on letting go. In contrast to these theories, two Xhosa rituals (umkhapho and umbuyiso) that seek to sustain the bond with the deceased person will be examined. Such rituals demonstrate that it is possible to both maintain the bond and for the bereaved person to move on with their lives. Despite different contexts, it will be argued that these Xhosa bereavement rituals have a contribution to make to Western models of bereavement and some implications for therapy will be explored.

Dès les premières dynasties, le pictogramme fut dans l’écriture le prolongement des représentations figuratives naturalistes, logogrammes dans les palettes funéraires décorées protodynastiques. Ce constat nous porte à les mettre en correspondance avec l’art pariétal du néolithique nubien, le prédynastique égyptien, et celui des aires culturelles périphériques. La reconsidération des pétroglyphes en tant que symboles et idéogrammes, c’est-à-dire des mythogrammes autant que des logogrammes-phonogrammes polysémiques permet de dégager un système structurel de représentations symboliques universel dans la vallée du Nil. Essentiellement funéraire, il est organisé autour d’une nouvelle lecture en relation aux mythes fondateurs de l’Œil d’Horus/solaire, s’exprime dans des rites primitifs de revivification, de renaissance, néolithiques et prédynastiques, explicités ensuite durant les premières dynasties sur des tablettes, des sceaux-cylindres votifs, et l’onction du mort avec les sept huiles canoniques et, enfin, dans les Textes des Pyramides. Contrairement à l’idée commune d’opposition des notions de Nature-Culture, il est question de les conjuguer, de réconcilier la dualité non binaire et de voir, par exemple, les fonctions héliotrope et/ou héliophore des animaux du bestiaire soudanien, avec Sokar le faucon funéraire, les garants bienveillants des métamorphoses et de renaissance du soleil/des défunts, par ailleurs, félidés, canidés, antilopes…, investis du numineux des divinités tutélaires. À la lueur d’une nouvelle lecture du mythe “osirien” primitif de métamorphose, nous reconsidérons les conceptions sur le sacrifice animal sur des bases d’anthropologie religieuse. Loin d’une maîtrise et soumission de la nature, et d’un diffusionnisme, l’interculturalité de la pensée mythique archaïque première dans la vallée nubiano-égyptienne et des régions périphériques multiethniques implique, vis-à-vis du monde naturel et des forces spirituelles numineuses, la transculturalité des conceptions solaires et le partage pluriculturel, transhistorique des croyances résurrectionnelles polycycliques. Ainsi, les pétroglyphes d’animaux, les scènes de chasse animale, les représentations de barques, de sandales, etc., sont de nature funéraire votive, apotropaïque. / Since the beginning of the first dynasties, the pictogram in writing was the extension of naturalistic figurative representations, logograms in the decorated funerary protodynastic palettes. This statement carry us to link them with the parietal art of Neolithic Nubia, the egyptian Predynastic, and peripheral cultural areas. We have reconsidered the petroglyphs as polysemic symbols and ideograms, i.e. mythograms as well polysemic logograms-phonograms, allowing us to draw up a structural system of symbolic representations, universal in the Nile valley. Basically funerary, the system is organised around a new reading in connection with the founding of the ‘Eye of Horus’/solar myths, and express itself in primitive Neolithic and Predynastic rites of revivification, rebirth, more explicit afterwards during the first dynasties on labels, votive cylinder-seals, and anointing the deads with the seven holy canonical oils, finally in the Pyramid Texts. Contrary to the common idea which opposite the Nature-Culture notions, there is some question to combine them, to reconcile the non-binary duality and to see, for example, the heliotrope functions and/or heliophore animals of the sub-Saharan bestiary, with Sokar the funerary hawk, the benevolent guarantors for the rebirth and metamorphosis of the sun/deads; otherwise felids, canids, antelopes…, invested by the numinous of the protecting divinities. In consequence of a new reading of the primitive ‘osirian’ myth of metamorphosis, we have reconsidered the conceptions about animal sacrifice on the basis of religious anthropology. Far from bringing under control and submission of nature, and diffusionnism, the intercultural (cross-cultural) of the first archaic mythic thought in the multi-ethnic nubian-egyptian valley and associated neighbouring areas involves, towards the natural world and the numinous spiritual strengths, the cross-cultural of solar conceptions and multicultural, trans-historic sharing of the polycyclic resurrectional believes. Thus, the animal petroglyphs, cynegetic scenes, boats and sandals representations, etc., are of funerary votive, apotropaic nature.