Due to demographic changes (longevity, falling birth rates) the workforce is aging and therefore, more and more workers will potentially experience ageism (i.e., discrimination based on age) at work; however, ageism is not limited to older workers and can concern workers of any age. This dissertation deals with attitudes and stereotypes fostering ageism and demonstrates the strong presence of work-related ageist attitudes and stereotypes in a series of three studies. In the first study, work-related age stereotypes were differentiated by dimensions (performance, adaptability, reliability, and warmth) and studied within an age-diverse sample of nurses. Older nurses were evaluated more positively on reliability, warmth, and competence, and younger nurses were evaluated more positively on performance and adaptability. In-group favoritism was observed for all age groups confirming social identity theory. Contact quality was the strongest potential predictor of age stereotypes, leading to the recommendation of fostering good contact between workers of different ages. Extending the explicit measurement in the first study, the second study applied both explicit and implicit measures (Implicit Association Test, IAT) to study age attitudes and age stereotypes at the workplace and their variability across three groups: students, workers, and older adults. The attribute stimulus material in the IAT was manipulated such that cross-category associations arose. Regardless of group and manipulation of the stimulus material, older workers were always evaluated more negatively according to the IAT results, thereby supporting the stereotype embodiment theory. The explicit measures of general age preferences showed no clear age preferences. However, despite slight in-group biases, more differentiated explicit measures of work-related age stereotypes revealed clear age stereotypes in all samples that were similar to the first study: younger workers were favored in terms of adaptability and performance; older workers were favored in terms of competence, reliability, and warmth. By solely looking at the explicit age attitudes, age stereotypes in the workplace would have been trivialized, thus, it is important to apply explicit and implicit measures for studies in the field of ageism. The third study examined the influence of explicit and implicit age cues in job applications on hypothetical hiring decisions. Discriminatory behavior was observed being triggered by both explicit and implicit age cues. Older applicants were less likely to be hired, as were applicants with an implicit old profile compared to an implicit age-neutral or young profile. An anti-discrimination prompt led to a reduction of the age bias, which is encouraging for human resources trainings. This dissertation shows that age stereotypes in the workplace are still highly prevalent. Explicit and implicit measures should be combined when conducting research on ageism to gain a comprehensive picture. By raising awareness to ageism, discriminatory behavior can be reduced.:Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 8 List of Tables 10 List of Figures 11 1. Synopsis 12 1.1 Introduction 12 1.2 Definition of Workplace-Ageism 13 1.3 Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 14 1.4 Workplace Inequalities 17 1.5 Negative Effects of Ageism in the Workplace 18 1.6 Fighting Ageism 21 1.7 Legal Regulations 24 1.8 Theories on Age Stereotype Formation 26 1.8.1 Social Identity Theory 28 1.8.2 Stereotype Embodiment Theory 29 1.8.3 Mere Exposure Effect 29 1.9 Research Objectives 30 2. Dimensions of Work-Related Age Stereotypes and In-Group Favoritism 34 2.1 Abstract 35 2.2 Introduction 36 2.2.1 Ageism and Age Stereotypes at Work 36 2.2.2 Age Stereotypes About Older and Younger Workers 37 2.2.3 In-Group Favoritism, Effects of Social Contact, and Self-Perception of Aging 41 2.3 Method 43 2.3.1 Participants 43 2.3.2 Measures 43 2.4 Results 45 2.4.1 Analyses of Age Stereotypes and Dimensions (Hypotheses 1 and 2) 48 2.4.2 Correlates of Age Stereotypes (Hypothesis 3) 51 2.5 Discussion 56 3. Implicit and Explicit Measurement of Work-Related Age Attitudes and Age Stereotypes 62 3.1 Abstract 63 3.2 Introduction 64 3.3 Theoretical Background 66 3.3.1 Explicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 66 3.3.2 Implicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 69 3.3.3 The Implicit Association Test 70 3.3.4 Age IAT and Correlation With Explicit Attitudes 74 3.3.5 The Present Study 74 3.4 Study 1A – Students 76 3.4.1 Method 76 3.4.2 Results 79 3.4.3 Discussion 83 3.5 Study 1B – Older Adults 84 3.5.1 Method 84 3.5.2 Results 84 3.5.3 Discussion 85 3.6 Study 1C – Active Workers and Semantic Influences in the IAT 86 3.6.1 Method 86 3.6.2 Results 87 3.6.3 Discussion 88 3.7 Overall Calculation 89 3.7.1 IAT 90 3.7.2 Explicit Measures 91 3.7.3 Implicit-Explicit Correlations 94 3.7.4 Discussion 94 3.8 General Discussion 94 3.8.1 Practical Implications 99 3.8.2 Limitations and Future Directions 100 3.8.3 Conclusion 100 4. Implicit and Explicit Age Cues Influence the Evaluation of Job Applications 102 4.1 Abstract 103 4.2 Introduction 104 4.2.1 Explicit Age Cues 105 4.2.2 Implicit Age Cues 107 4.2.3 Interventions for Reducing Age Discrimination in Evaluation Job Applications 109 4.2.4 The Present Study 110 4.3 Study 1 – Implicit Age Cues and Different Hiring Goals 111 4.3.1 Method 111 4.3.2 Results 115 4.3.3 Discussion 117 4.4 Study 2 – Implicit and Explicit Age Information 119 4.4.1 Method 119 4.4.2 Results 120 4.4.3 Discussion 123 4.5 Study 3 – Anti-Discrimination Prompting 124 4.5.1 Method 124 4.5.2 Results 125 4.5.3 Discussion 131 4.6 General Discussion 132 4.6.1 Limitations 136 4.6.2 Implications 137 4.6.3 Conclusion 138 5. General Discussion 139 5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings and Discussion 139 5.2 Limitations 143 5.3 Contributions, Practical Implications, and Future Directions 145 5.4 Conclusion 149 References 151 Appendix 171 Curriculum Vitae 173 List of Publications 175 Declaration 176 / Vor dem Hintergrund des demografischen Wandels (Langlebigkeit, sinkende Geburtenraten) und der verbundenen Alterung der Arbeitskräfte, ist das Thema der Altersdiskriminierung am Arbeitsplatz von höchster Relevanz. Durch die Veränderung der Altersstrukturen sind potentiell immer mehr Arbeitskräfte von Altersdiskriminierung betroffen, wobei keine Beschränkung auf eine bestimmte Altersgruppe besteht. Die vorliegende Dissertation widmet sich den Einstellungen und Stereotypen die zu Altersdiskriminierung am Arbeitsplatz beitragen und demonstriert die Präsenz von negativen, arbeitsplatzbezogenen Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotypen in drei Studien. In der ersten Studie erfolgte eine Differenzierung von arbeitsplatzbezogenen Altersstereotypen nach Dimensionen (Performanz, Anpassungsfähigkeit, Zuverlässigkeit, Wärme). Pflegekräfte schätzten ältere Arbeitskräfte als zuverlässiger, wärmer und kompetenter, und jüngere Arbeitskräfte als leistungs- und anpassungsfähiger ein. Entsprechend der sozialen Identitätstheorie favorisierten alle Altersgruppen ihre eigene Gruppe. Kontaktqualität war der stärkste potentielle Prädiktor für Altersstereotype. Indem ArbeitgeberInnen guten Austausch zwischen MitarbeiterInnen unterschiedlichen Alters fördern, kann negativen Altersstereotypen vorgebeugt werden. In Ergänzung zur expliziten Messung der ersten Studie, erfolgte in der zweiten Studie zusätzlich die implizite Erhebung von Alterseinstellungen mittels eines impliziten Assoziationstests in drei Stichproben (Studenten, Arbeitskräfte, ältere Erwachsene). Das Stimulusmaterial des impliziten Assoziationstests wurde so manipuliert, dass kategorienübergreifende Assoziationen auftraten. Unabhängig von der Stichprobe und der Manipulation des Stimulusmaterials wurden ältere Arbeitskräfte in Übereinstimmung mit der Stereotype Embodiment Theorie im impliziten Assoziationstest stets negativer evaluiert. Während die globale Messung der Alterspräferenz keine Bevorzugung einer Altersgruppe ergab, zeigte die differenzierte explizite Messung das gleiche Bild wie in der ersten Studie: Ältere Arbeitskräfte wurden in Bezug auf Kompetenz, Zuverlässigkeit und Wärme favorisiert, während jüngere Arbeitskräfte im Hinblick auf Performanz und Anpassungsfähigkeit besser bewertet wurden. Da die reine explizite Messung zu einem verzerrten Bild, im Sinne einer Trivialisierung, der arbeitsplatzbezogenen Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotype geführt hätte, wird die kombinierte Anwendung von expliziten und impliziten Maßen für Studien im Bereich der Altersdiskriminierung empfohlen. Die dritte Studie untersuchte den Einfluss von expliziten und impliziten Altershinweisen in Bewerbungen auf die Einstellungswahrscheinlichkeit in einem hypothetischen Bewerbungsverfahren. Explizite und implizite Altershinweise führten zu diskriminierendem Verhalten. Die StudienteilnehmerInnen waren weniger bereit, ältere BewerberInnen und BewerberInnen mit einem implizit alten Profil im Vergleich zu einem altersneutralen oder jungen Profil hypothetisch einzustellen. Ein Anti-Diskriminierungshinweis führte zu einer deutlichen Reduktion der Altersdiskriminierung, was vor allem für den Personalbereich von Bedeutung ist. Die Dissertation demonstriert die hohe Prävalenz von Altersstereotypen am Arbeitsplatz. Zur umfassenden Erfassung von Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotypen sollten explizite und implizite Messmethoden kombiniert werden. Bewusstseinsbildung kann altersdiskriminierendes Verhalten reduzieren.:Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 8 List of Tables 10 List of Figures 11 1. Synopsis 12 1.1 Introduction 12 1.2 Definition of Workplace-Ageism 13 1.3 Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 14 1.4 Workplace Inequalities 17 1.5 Negative Effects of Ageism in the Workplace 18 1.6 Fighting Ageism 21 1.7 Legal Regulations 24 1.8 Theories on Age Stereotype Formation 26 1.8.1 Social Identity Theory 28 1.8.2 Stereotype Embodiment Theory 29 1.8.3 Mere Exposure Effect 29 1.9 Research Objectives 30 2. Dimensions of Work-Related Age Stereotypes and In-Group Favoritism 34 2.1 Abstract 35 2.2 Introduction 36 2.2.1 Ageism and Age Stereotypes at Work 36 2.2.2 Age Stereotypes About Older and Younger Workers 37 2.2.3 In-Group Favoritism, Effects of Social Contact, and Self-Perception of Aging 41 2.3 Method 43 2.3.1 Participants 43 2.3.2 Measures 43 2.4 Results 45 2.4.1 Analyses of Age Stereotypes and Dimensions (Hypotheses 1 and 2) 48 2.4.2 Correlates of Age Stereotypes (Hypothesis 3) 51 2.5 Discussion 56 3. Implicit and Explicit Measurement of Work-Related Age Attitudes and Age Stereotypes 62 3.1 Abstract 63 3.2 Introduction 64 3.3 Theoretical Background 66 3.3.1 Explicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 66 3.3.2 Implicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 69 3.3.3 The Implicit Association Test 70 3.3.4 Age IAT and Correlation With Explicit Attitudes 74 3.3.5 The Present Study 74 3.4 Study 1A – Students 76 3.4.1 Method 76 3.4.2 Results 79 3.4.3 Discussion 83 3.5 Study 1B – Older Adults 84 3.5.1 Method 84 3.5.2 Results 84 3.5.3 Discussion 85 3.6 Study 1C – Active Workers and Semantic Influences in the IAT 86 3.6.1 Method 86 3.6.2 Results 87 3.6.3 Discussion 88 3.7 Overall Calculation 89 3.7.1 IAT 90 3.7.2 Explicit Measures 91 3.7.3 Implicit-Explicit Correlations 94 3.7.4 Discussion 94 3.8 General Discussion 94 3.8.1 Practical Implications 99 3.8.2 Limitations and Future Directions 100 3.8.3 Conclusion 100 4. Implicit and Explicit Age Cues Influence the Evaluation of Job Applications 102 4.1 Abstract 103 4.2 Introduction 104 4.2.1 Explicit Age Cues 105 4.2.2 Implicit Age Cues 107 4.2.3 Interventions for Reducing Age Discrimination in Evaluation Job Applications 109 4.2.4 The Present Study 110 4.3 Study 1 – Implicit Age Cues and Different Hiring Goals 111 4.3.1 Method 111 4.3.2 Results 115 4.3.3 Discussion 117 4.4 Study 2 – Implicit and Explicit Age Information 119 4.4.1 Method 119 4.4.2 Results 120 4.4.3 Discussion 123 4.5 Study 3 – Anti-Discrimination Prompting 124 4.5.1 Method 124 4.5.2 Results 125 4.5.3 Discussion 131 4.6 General Discussion 132 4.6.1 Limitations 136 4.6.2 Implications 137 4.6.3 Conclusion 138 5. General Discussion 139 5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings and Discussion 139 5.2 Limitations 143 5.3 Contributions, Practical Implications, and Future Directions 145 5.4 Conclusion 149 References 151 Appendix 171 Curriculum Vitae 173 List of Publications 175 Declaration 176

This thesis reports a collective case study of the school educational experiences of five severely and profoundly deaf students who were enrolled in regular schools in rural areas of New South Wales. The students ranged in age from 6 to 18 years. Three issues were examined: (1) The impact of the philosophy of inclusive education and the question of why students with high degrees of deafness and high support needs were enrolled in regular schools in rural areas; (2) The specific linguistic an educational support needs of deaf students; and (3) The ability of the regular schools and teachers to cater for the educational needs of the deaf students in those settings. The case studies revealed that to considerably varying extents in different situations, the students were afforded inclusive educational opportunities. The extent of inclusiveness of students’ educational experiences was shown to vary according to a number of variables. The variables identified included: the type and quality of communication with the deaf student, teaching style, accessibility of content, particular lesson type, and the type and extent of curriculum adaptations employed. As a result of the analysis of the data from the five cases, a number of generalistions were possible. These generalisations were that (a) students with the ability to access spoken communication auditorily were more easily included than students using manual communication; (b) reduction of linguistic and academic input occurred as a response to student inability to access class programs because of reduced linguistic capabilities, resulting in the deaf students receiving different and reduced information to the hearing students; (c) communication between a deaf student and his or her class teacher needed to be direct for the most successful inclusion to occur; (d) teaching style needed to be interactive or experiential for successful language learning and literacy development to occur; (e) curriculum adaptations needed to involve provision of visual support for lesson material to be highly effective; (f) lessons/subjects easily supported by visual means, such as mathematics or practical subjects, when taught hierarchically, going from the known to unknown in achievable steps, meant teaching style could be either transmission or interactive, for lesson activities to be considered inclusive; (g) students with poor literacy skills were unable to successfully access an intact (i.e., unaltered and complete) high school curriculum; (h) the teaching style of the class teacher impacted on the support model possible for the itinerant teacher; (i) an interactive class teaching style allowed for cooperative teaching between class teacher and itinerant teacher who could then assist the class teacher with both the linguistic and academic needs of the deaf student; (j) a transmission style of teaching resulted in various levels of withdrawal for the deaf student unless the subject matter could be represented visually; (k) when curriculum content or expected outcomes were reduced, the deaf students did not have the same access to information as their hearing counterparts and consequently could not develop concepts or understandings in the same manner; and (l) language and literacy development were most facilitated when interactive teaching opportunities were established proactively for the deaf students rather than through the reduction of content as a response to their failure to successfully engage with the complete curriculum. The conclusions suggest an alternative support proposal for deaf students in rural environments. The model of support proposed involves the targeting of specific preschools and primary schools with the provision of teachers identified to teach collaboratively and interactively. Under the proposed model several students with impaired hearing would be located within the one school with the itinerant teacher position becoming a full-time appointment in that school. Such a model would enable coenrolment, co-teaching, co-programming, creative grouping, and the provision of demonstration opportunities and support for other teachers within the school and district that had deaf students enrolled. Finally, interactive teaching, based on a clearly defined theoretical model of language acquisition, development, and learning, is recommended for students with impaired hearing in such environments. It is argued that the support of linguistic development and academic learning could be facilitated concurrently, thus ensuring that by the time students had reached high school they would possess sufficient literacy skills to access a regular high school program successfully. / PhD Doctorate

Frauen*rechte beschreiben Grund- und Menschenrechte, die für Frauen* und Mädchen* besonders relevant sind, wie beispielsweise das Recht auf politische Partizipation, auf Bildung, auf Gesundheit oder auf körperliche sowie sexuelle Integrität. Bemühungen um und die Konzeption von Frauen*rechten sind sowohl auf inter- als auch auf nationaler Ebene von Frauen*rechtsbewegungen beeinflusst. Trotz des strukturellen male bias des Rechts kennen sowohl das internationale Menschenrechtsregime als auch nationale Rechtsordnungen Gewaltschutzmechanismen, Geschlechterdiskriminierungsver- oder Gleichstellungsgebote. Kritik gegenüber Frauen*rechten wird aus kulturrelativistischen, universalistisch-feministischen, postkolonialen und queer-feministischen Perspektiven geübt.

Mit dem Begriff Diskriminierung wird der benachteiligende, herabsetzende oder abwertende Umgang mit Personen, die (imaginierten) gesellschaftlichen Gruppen zugeordnet werden, beschrieben. Diesem gehen psychologische Dynamiken der Stereotypisierung sowie historisch komplexe soziale Prozesse und Strukturen der Differenzierung und Hierarchisierung voran. Aufgrund sozialer, politischer und wissenschaftlicher Auseinandersetzungen ist Diskriminierung mittlerweile nicht nur als (Menschen-)Rechtsverletzung anerkannt, sondern permanent Gegenstand von Kontroversen über die (Il-)Legitimität von (Un-)Gleichbehandlung.

Racial and gender inequality, as well as other forms of discrimination has been a part of the South African, American and Indian histories for a very long time. Even today racial disparity is still very evident in the South African and American societies whilst discrimination based on caste is still prevalent in the Indian society. This is illustrated by continued racial discrimination and the remaining signs of societal segregation. Due to continuing disparities amongst the people, it became necessary to implement affirmative action programmes. Focusing in particular on education and jobs, affirmative action policies require active measures to be taken to ensure that blacks and other minorities enjoy the same opportunities for career advancement and school admissions that had been the nearly exclusive province of whites in SA and the USA, or for the forward castes in India. Affirmative action has been both praised and denounced, as an answer to racial inequality. One of the key issues that arise when affirmative action is discussed is whether or not affirmative action in fact promotes equality and atones for past prejudices. Another concern is whether the current affirmative action policy is the right policy to use. The issues surrounding affirmative action seems to be universal as are the circumstances. Perhaps the most widespread similarity among the programmes in these very different countries has been that group preferences and quotas are almost always discussed. The debate on affirmative action exists because it is a very divisive issue and it affects different groups of people in different ways, and some groups or persons seemingly benefit more from affirmative action than other persons or groups. In addition, it causes people to be classified into groups, and at the same time, strives to break down group barriers. It is an issue that is difficult to resolve because people have varied ideas about how the problems of racial inequality and historical discrimination should be addressed / Jurisprudence / LLD

Racial and gender inequality, as well as other forms of discrimination has been a part of the South African, American and Indian histories for a very long time. Even today racial disparity is still very evident in the South African and American societies whilst discrimination based on caste is still prevalent in the Indian society. This is illustrated by continued racial discrimination and the remaining signs of societal segregation. Due to continuing disparities amongst the people, it became necessary to implement affirmative action programmes. Focusing in particular on education and jobs, affirmative action policies require active measures to be taken to ensure that blacks and other minorities enjoy the same opportunities for career advancement and school admissions that had been the nearly exclusive province of whites in SA and the USA, or for the forward castes in India. Affirmative action has been both praised and denounced, as an answer to racial inequality. One of the key issues that arise when affirmative action is discussed is whether or not affirmative action in fact promotes equality and atones for past prejudices. Another concern is whether the current affirmative action policy is the right policy to use. The issues surrounding affirmative action seems to be universal as are the circumstances. Perhaps the most widespread similarity among the programmes in these very different countries has been that group preferences and quotas are almost always discussed. The debate on affirmative action exists because it is a very divisive issue and it affects different groups of people in different ways, and some groups or persons seemingly benefit more from affirmative action than other persons or groups. In addition, it causes people to be classified into groups, and at the same time, strives to break down group barriers. It is an issue that is difficult to resolve because people have varied ideas about how the problems of racial inequality and historical discrimination should be addressed / Jurisprudence / LLD