Microstructured optical fibres (MOFs), also commonly called photonic crystal fibres or holey fibres, describe a type of optical fibre in which continuous channels of (typically) air run their entire length. These `holes' serve to both confine electromagnetic waves within the core of the fibre and to tailor its transmission properties. In order to understand and quantify both of these functions, a new computational algorithm was developed and implemented. It solves for the eigenvalues of Maxwell's wave equations in the two-dimensional waveguide cross-section, with radiating boundary conditions imposed outside the microstructure. This yields the leaky modes supported by the fibre. The boundary conditions are achieved exactly using a novel refinement scheme called the Adjustable Boundary Condition (ABC) method. Two implementations are programmed and their computational efficiencies are compared. Both use an azimuthal Fourier decomposition, but radially, a finite difference scheme is shown to be more efficient than a basis function expansion. The properties of the ABC method are then predicted theoretically using an original approach. It shows that the method is highly efficient, robust, automated and generally applicable to any implementation or to other radiating problems. A theoretical framework for the properties of modes in MOFs is also presented. It includes the use of the Bloch-Floquet theorem to provide a simpler and more efficient way to exploit microstructure symmetry. A new, but brief study of the modal birefringence properties in straight and spun fibres is also included. The theoretical and numerical tools are then applied to the study of polymer MOFs. Three types of fibres are numerically studied, fabricated and characterised. Each is of contemporary interest. Firstly, fabrication of the first MOFs with uniformly oriented elliptical holes is presented. A high degree of hole ellipticity is achieved using a simple technique relying on hole deformation during fibre draw. Both form and stress-optic birefringence are characterized over a broad scaled-wavelength range, which shows excellent agreement with numerical modelling. Secondly, an analysis of leaky modes in real air core MOFs, fabricated specifically for photonic band gap guidance, is then used to identify alternative guiding mechanisms. The supported leaky modes exhibit properties closely matching a simple hollow waveguide, weakly influenced by the surrounding microstructure. The analysis gives a quantitative determination of the wavelength dependent confinement loss of these modes and illustrates a mechanism not photonic band gap in origin by which colouration can be observed in such fibres. Finally, highly multimode MOFs (also called `air-clad' fibres) that have much wider light acceptance angles than conventional fibres are studied. An original and accurate method is presented for determining the numerical aperture of such fibres using leaky modes. The dependence on length, wavelength and various microstructure dimensions are evaluated for the first time for a class of fibres. These results show excellent agreement with published measurements on similar fibres and verify that bridge thicknesses much smaller than the wavelength are required for exceptionally high numerical apertures. The influence of multiple layers of holes on the numerical aperture and capture efficiency are then presented. It shows that a substantial increase in both these parameters can be achieved for some bridge thicknesses. Simple heuristic expressions for these quantities are given, which are based on the physical insight provided by the full numerical models. The work is then supported by the first fabrication attempts of large-core polymer MOFs with thin supporting bridges. These fibres exhibit relatively high numerical apertures and show good agreement with theoretical expectations over a very wide scaled-wavelength range.

This work summarizes properties of nitrogen containing GaAs, which are relevant for optoelectronic application and allow a deeper insight in the physics of this material. In the first part the dependence of the banggap energy of nitrogen implanted GaAs on several process parameters (implanted nitrogen concentration, implantation temperature, annealing duration and temperature) is investigated. The second part focuses on the relaxation dynamics of highly excited carriers. For this, the carrier relaxation dynamics in nitrogen implanted GaAs, in epitaxially grown GaAsN and in (pure) GaAs are investigated by means of pump probe measurements on a femtosecond time scale. The comparision of experimental results to calculated scattering rates leads to relevant informations of scattering mechanisms and electronic properties. / Diese Arbeit widmet sich Eigenschaften von Stickstoff-haltigem Gallium-Arsenid, die sowohl für das physikalische Verständnis als auch für optoelektronische Anwendungen dieses Materials relevant sind. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wird die Abhängigkeit der Bandlücken-Energie von verschiedenen Prozess-Parametern (Stickstoffkonzentration, Implantationstemperatur, Ausheildauer und -temperatur) in Stickstoff-implantiertem GaAs untersucht. Der zweite Teil konzentriert sich auf die Relaxationsdynamik hoch angeregter Ladungsträger. Neben dem oben bereits angesprochenen Material wird in Anrege-Abfrage-Experimenten mit Femtosekunden-Zeitauflösung zusätzlich epitaktisch gewachsenes GaAsN und (Stickstoff-freies) GaAs untersucht. Die Berechnung der Streuraten und der Vergleich mit experimentell gewonnenen Daten liefert wesentliche Informationen über beteiligte Steumechanismen und elektronische Eigenschaften.

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit werden Schichten und Schichtsyteme untersucht, die mittels D.C. gepulstem Magnetronzerstäuben abgeschieden wurden. Die Untersuchungen der Schichten erfolgen unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Eignung dieser Schichten als Kontaktschichten für photovoltaische Anwendungen. Eine detaillierte Studie der Schichteigenschaften wurde mit Hilfe von optischen Spektroskopiemethoden sowie elektrischen Messungen erstellt. Diese stellt die Zusammenhänge der Abscheideparameter, insbesondere der Substrattemperatur und der Wasserstoffflussrate bei der Abscheidung mit den Schichteigenschaften her. Des Weiteren werden die wechselseitigen Abhängigkeiten der Schichteigenschaften dargelegt. Hierbei wurde unter anderem gezeigt, dass der allgemein in der Literatur akzeptierte lineare Zusammenhang zwischen der Tauc-Lorentz Bandlücke und dem Wasserstoffgehalt nicht für alle Proben bestätigt werden konnte. Stattdessen wurde die Abhängigkeit der Bandlücke im Wesentlichen dem Anteil der polyhydrierten Siliziumatome innerhalb der Schicht zugeordnet. Für Teilmengen der Proben ergibt sich hieraus wieder eine nahezu lineare Abhängigkeit zwischen dem Wasserstoffgehalt und der Bandlücke. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden Heterostruktur-Dioden untersucht, die sich an der Grenzfläche zwischen amorphem und kristallinem Silizium ausbilden. Dabei werden vordergründig die elektrischen Eigenschaften untersucht. Dies umfasst die Untersuchung der Abscheideparameter auf grenzflächennahe Defektzustände, die mittels Ladungstransientenspektroskopie (QTS) gefunden wurden. Zudem wird der begünstigende Einfluss des kristallinen Siliziumsubstrats auf die Ausbildung von mikrokristallinen Strukturen der aufwachsenden Schichten mittels ramanspektroskopischen Untersuchungen dargelegt.

Microstructured optical fibres (MOFs), also commonly called photonic crystal fibres or holey fibres, describe a type of optical fibre in which continuous channels of (typically) air run their entire length. These `holes' serve to both confine electromagnetic waves within the core of the fibre and to tailor its transmission properties. In order to understand and quantify both of these functions, a new computational algorithm was developed and implemented. It solves for the eigenvalues of Maxwell's wave equations in the two-dimensional waveguide cross-section, with radiating boundary conditions imposed outside the microstructure. This yields the leaky modes supported by the fibre. The boundary conditions are achieved exactly using a novel refinement scheme called the Adjustable Boundary Condition (ABC) method. Two implementations are programmed and their computational efficiencies are compared. Both use an azimuthal Fourier decomposition, but radially, a finite difference scheme is shown to be more efficient than a basis function expansion. The properties of the ABC method are then predicted theoretically using an original approach. It shows that the method is highly efficient, robust, automated and generally applicable to any implementation or to other radiating problems. A theoretical framework for the properties of modes in MOFs is also presented. It includes the use of the Bloch-Floquet theorem to provide a simpler and more efficient way to exploit microstructure symmetry. A new, but brief study of the modal birefringence properties in straight and spun fibres is also included. The theoretical and numerical tools are then applied to the study of polymer MOFs. Three types of fibres are numerically studied, fabricated and characterised. Each is of contemporary interest. Firstly, fabrication of the first MOFs with uniformly oriented elliptical holes is presented. A high degree of hole ellipticity is achieved using a simple technique relying on hole deformation during fibre draw. Both form and stress-optic birefringence are characterized over a broad scaled-wavelength range, which shows excellent agreement with numerical modelling. Secondly, an analysis of leaky modes in real air core MOFs, fabricated specifically for photonic band gap guidance, is then used to identify alternative guiding mechanisms. The supported leaky modes exhibit properties closely matching a simple hollow waveguide, weakly influenced by the surrounding microstructure. The analysis gives a quantitative determination of the wavelength dependent confinement loss of these modes and illustrates a mechanism not photonic band gap in origin by which colouration can be observed in such fibres. Finally, highly multimode MOFs (also called `air-clad' fibres) that have much wider light acceptance angles than conventional fibres are studied. An original and accurate method is presented for determining the numerical aperture of such fibres using leaky modes. The dependence on length, wavelength and various microstructure dimensions are evaluated for the first time for a class of fibres. These results show excellent agreement with published measurements on similar fibres and verify that bridge thicknesses much smaller than the wavelength are required for exceptionally high numerical apertures. The influence of multiple layers of holes on the numerical aperture and capture efficiency are then presented. It shows that a substantial increase in both these parameters can be achieved for some bridge thicknesses. Simple heuristic expressions for these quantities are given, which are based on the physical insight provided by the full numerical models. The work is then supported by the first fabrication attempts of large-core polymer MOFs with thin supporting bridges. These fibres exhibit relatively high numerical apertures and show good agreement with theoretical expectations over a very wide scaled-wavelength range.

Les composants de puissance grand gap présentent d'ores et déjà des caractéristiques statiques et dynamiques supérieures à leurs homologues en silicium. Mais ces composants d'un nouvel ordre s'accompagnent de différences susceptibles de modifier le fonctionnement de la cellule de commutation. Les travaux qui furent menés au cours de cette thèse se sont intéressés aux composants grand gap et à leur commande au sein d'un convertisseur de puissance synchrone robuste, haut rendement et haute densité de puissance. En particulier deux points critiques ont été identifiés et étudiés. Le premier est la grande sensibilité des composants grand gap aux composants parasites. Le second est l'absence de diode parasite interne entre le drain et la source de nombreux transistors grand gap. Pour répondre aux exigences de ces nouveaux composants et en tirer le meilleur profit, nous proposons des solutions innovantes, robustes, efficaces et directement intégrables aux circuits de commande. Des circuits de commande entièrement intégrés ont ainsi été conçus spécifiquement pour les composants grand gap. Ceux-ci permettent entre autres le contrôle précis des formes de commutation par l'adaptation de l'impédance de grille, et l'amélioration de l'efficacité énergétique et de la robustesse d'un convertisseur de puissance à base de composants grand sans diodes par une gestion dynamique et locale de temps morts très courts. / Wide band gap devices already demonstrate static and dynamic performances better than silicon transistors. Compared to conventional silicon devices these new wide band gap transistors have some different characteristics that may affect power converter operations. The work presented in this PhD manuscript deals with a specific gate drive circuit for a robust, high power density and high efficiency wide band gap devices-based power converter. Two critical points have been especially studied. The first point is the higher sensitivity of wide band gap transistors to parasitic components. The second point is the lack of parasitic body diode between drain and source of HEMT GaN and JFET SiC. In order to drive these new power devices in the best way we propose innovative, robust and efficient solutions. Fully integrated gate drive circuits have been specifically developed for wide band gap devices. An adaptive output impedance gate driver provides an accurate control of wide band gap device switching waveforms directly on its gate side. Another gate drive circuit improves efficiency and reliability of diode-less wide band gap devices-based power converters thanks to an auto-adaptive and local dead-time management.

L’électricité prend une place de plus en plus importante dans les systèmes énergétiques embarqués. L’électricité est une forme d’énergie très malléable, facile à transporter et réglable ou transformable avec un très faible taux de pertes. L’énergie électrique, associée à des convertisseurs statiques, est plus facile à maîtriser que, par exemple, l’énergie hydraulique et/ou pneumatique, permettant un réglage plus fin et une réduction des coûts de maintenance. L’évolution de la puissance dans les modèles avioniques est marquante. Avec le nombre croissant de charges électroniques, un avion plus électrique avec un réseau à courant alternatif inclurait un grand nombre de redresseurs AC/DC qui devront respecter les normes de qualité secteur. Une solution pour la réduction de la masse serait de préférer un réseau HVDC (High Voltage DC Bus). Sur les futurs modèles avioniques plus électriques, les concepteurs envisageront des conversions HVDC/DC à partir de l’unité appelée BBCU (Buck Boost Converter Unit). Dans ce cas d’étude, un réseau de distribution en tension continue (±270Vdc) est connecté à un réseau de sécurité basse tension (28Vdc) avec un échange bidirectionnel de puissance pouvant atteindre 10kW. Le convertisseur statique assurant cette liaison représente de nouveaux défis pour l’électronique de puissance en termes de fiabilité, sûreté, détection de panne, rendement et réduction de masse et de coût. Le dimensionnement du convertisseur doit prendre en compte une conception optimale, en aéronautique ce critère est la masse. Dans le processus de dimensionnement et d’optimisation du convertisseur, il est donc impératif de prendre en compte trois facteurs principaux : 1) l’évolution des topologies de conversion, 2) l’évolution des composants actifs et passifs et 3) l’intégration de puissance. La réunion de ces trois facteurs permettra ainsi la miniaturisation des convertisseurs statiques. Dans un premier temps, nous préciserons la démarche adoptée pour le dimensionnement d’un convertisseur en prenant en compte : les topologies actives, les filtres différentiels et le système de refroidissement. Les différents éléments qui composent le convertisseur sont décrits dans un langage informatique orienté objet. Des facteurs de performances seront également introduits afin de faciliter le choix des semi-conducteurs, des condensateurs et du dissipateur pour un convertisseur statique. Dans un deuxième temps, nous présenterons le fonctionnement d’une topologie multicellulaire DC/DC, isolée pour l’application proposée. Nous présenterons les avantages du couplage de différentes phases de ce convertisseur. Nous introduirons les différentes associations des cellules et leurs avantages, possibles grâce à l’isolement, comme la mise en série et en parallèle. Puisque la caractérisation des pertes des semi-conducteurs est essentielle pour le dimensionnement du convertisseur statique, nous proposerons deux approches : un modèle de simulation relativement simple et paramétré à l’aide de seules notices constructeurs ; et une méthode de mesure des pertes dans les semi-conducteurs qui est à la fois précise et compatible avec les composants les plus rapides. En ce qui concerne les composants magnétiques, une surface de réponse des matériaux ferrites sera présentée. Nous allons décrire, par le biais analytique et de simulation, des modèles pour la détermination du champ magnétique à l’intérieur du noyau et des ondulations de courant engendrés. Finalement, en profitant des modèles et des résultats obtenus dans les sections précédentes, nous montrerons le dimensionnement et la réalisation de chaque partie du convertisseur BBCU 100kHz / 10kW. Une perspective d’un design idéal est également présentée. / The electricity is taking a more important place in the embedded systems. The electricity is a very moldable form of energy, easy to transport and adjustable or transformed with a very low losses. The electrical energy, associated with power converters, is easier to control than hydraulic and/or pneumatic energies for example, allowing a finer regulation and a cost cutting of maintenance. The installed power in the avionic models is growing fast. With the increasing number of electronic loads, a more electrical aircraft with an AC network would include a large number of rectifiers AC/DC which will have to respect the quality standards. A solution for the reduction of the mass would be to prefer a HVDC network (High Voltage DC BUS). On the future more electrical aircrafts, the designers will be facing a HVDC/DC power conversion. This is the role of the unit called BBCU (Buck Boost Converter Unit). In our case of study, a distribution network in DC voltage (± 270Vdc) is connected to a security low-voltage network (28Vdc) which includes a bidirectional power exchanges achieving 10kW. The power converter for this connection gives new challenges for the power electronics in terms of reliability, safety, failure detection, efficiency and reduction of mass and cost. The design of the power converter needs to take into account for an optimal design. It is thus imperative to take into account three main factors: 1) the evolution of the power topologies 2) the evolution of the active and passive devices and 3) the power integration. The meeting of these three factors will allow the miniaturization of the power converters. At first, the adopted approach for designing power converters, taking into account the power topology, the differential filters and the cooling system are presented. The various elements which compose the power converter are described in an Object-Oriented Programming. The performance factors will be introduced to facilitate the choice of semiconductors, capacitors and heat-sinks. Secondly, the operation phases of a multicellular isolated DC/DC topology for the proposed application are presented. A discussion of the advantages of the magnetic coupling is also introduced. Thanks to the isolation, different associations of switching cells, series or/and parallel connection, are possible. Knowing the losses of power semiconductors is an essential step to design a power converter, thus two approaches are proposed: 1) a simulation model using a relatively simple model with the datasheets information; and 2) a losses measurement method which is precise and compatible with the fastest devices. As regards the magnetic components, a response surface of ferrite materials will be presented. Some models for the determination of the magnetic field inside the core and the current ripple are also described. Finally, by taking advantage of models and results obtained in the previous sections, the design and the realization of each party of the BBCU power converter 100kHz / 10kW is showed. A perspective of an ideal design is also presented.

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Physics) / An increasing energy demand and growing environmental concerns regarding the use of fossil fuels in South Africa has led to the challenge to explore cheap, alternative sources of energy. The generation of electricity from Photovoltaic (PV) devices such as solar cells is currently seen as a viable alternative source of clean energy. As such, crystalline, amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon thin films are expected to play increasingly important roles as economically viable materials for PV development. Despite the growing interest shown in these materials, challenges such as the partial understanding of standardized measurement protocols, and the relationship between the structure and optoelectronic properties still need to be overcome.

Chalcogenide glasses are a class of covalent amorphous semiconductors with interesting properties. The presence of short-range order and the pinned Fermi level are the two important properties that make them suitable for many applications. With flash memory technology reaching the scaling limit as per Moore’s law, alternate materials and techniques are being researched at for realizing next generation non-volatile memories. Two such possibilities that are being looked at are Phase Change Memory (PCM) and Programmable Metallization Cell (PMC) both of which make use of chalcogenide materials. This thesis starts with a survey of the work done so far in realizing PCMs in reality. For chalcogenides to be used as a main memory or as a replacement to FLASH technology, the electrical switching parameters like switching voltage, programming current, ON state and OFF state resistances, switching time and optical parameters like band gap are to be considered. A survey on the work done in this regard has revealed that various parameters such as chemical composition of the PC material, nature of additives used to enhance the performance of PCM, topological thresholds (Rigidity Percolation Threshold and Chemical Threshold), device geometry, thickness of the active volume, etc., influence the electrical switching parameters. This has motivated to further investigate the material and experimental parameters that affect switching and also to explore the possibility of multi level switching. In this thesis work, the feasibility of using two chalcogenide systems namely Si15Te85-xGex and Ge15Te85-xAgx in the form of amorphous thin films for PCM application is explored. In the process, electrical switching experiments have been carried out on thin films belonging to these systems and the results obtained are found to exhibit some interesting anomalies. Further experiments and analysis have been carried out to understand these anomalies. Finally, the dynamics of electrical switching has been investigated and presented for amorphous Si15Te85-xGex thin films. From these studies, it is also seen that multi state switching/multiple resistance levels of the material can be achieved by current controlled switching, the mechanisms of which have been further probed using XRD analysis and AFM studies. In addition, investigations have been carried out on the electrical switching behavior of amorphous Ge15Te85-xAgx thin film devices and optical band gap studies on amorphous Ge15Te85-xAgx thin films. Chapter one of the thesis, gives a brief introduction to the limitations in existing memory technology and the alternative memory technologies that are being researched, based on which it can be inferred that PCM is a promising candidate for the next generation non volatile memory. This chapter also discusses the principle of using PCM to store data, realization of PCM using chalcogenides, the material properties to be considered in designing PCM, the trade offs in the process of design and the current trends in PCM technology. Chapter two provides a brief review of the electrical switching phenomenon observed in various bulk chalcogenide glasses, as electrical switching is the underlying principle behind the working of a PCM. In the process of designing a memory, many parameters like read/write operation speed, data retentivity and life, etc., have to be optimized for which a thorough understanding on the dependence of electrical switching mechanism on various material parameters is essential. In this chapter, the dependence of electrical switching on parameters like network topological thresholds and electrical and thermal properties of the material is discussed. Doping is an efficient way of controlling the electrical parameters of chalcogenides. The nature of dopant also influences switching parameters and this also is briefly discussed. Chapter three provides a brief introduction to the different experimental techniques used for the thesis work such as bulk chalcogenide glass preparation, preparation of thin amorphous films, measurement of film thickness, confirmation of amorphous nature of the films using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), electrical switching experiments using a custom made setup, crystallization study using XRD and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and optical band gap studies using UV-Vis spectrometer. Vt is an important parameter in the design of a PCM. Chapter four discusses the dependence of Switching voltage, Vt, on input energy. It is already established that the Vt is influenced by the composition of the base glass, nature of dopants, thickness of films and by the ambient temperature. Based on the results of electrical switching experiments in Si15Te74Ge11 amorphous thin films a comprehensive analysis has been done to understand the kinetics of electrical switching. Chapter five discusses a current controlled crystallization technique that can be used to realize multi-bit storage with a single layer of chalcogenide material. In case of PCM, data is stored as structural information; the memory cell in the amorphous state is read as data ‘0’ and the memory cell in crystalline state is read as data ‘1’. This is accomplished through the process of electrical switching. In order to increase the memory density or storage density, multi-bit storage is being probed at by having multiple layers of chalcogenide material. However, with this technique, the problems of inter-diffusion between different layers cannot be ruled out. In this thesis work, a current controlled crystallization technique has been used to achieve multiple stable resistance states in Si15Te75Ge10 thin films. Chapter six discusses the mechanism behind multi state switching exhibited by certain compositions of Si15Te85-xGex thin films. Crystallization studies on certain Si15Te85-xGex films have been carried out using XRD and AFM to understand the phenomenon of multiple states. The results of these experiments and analysis are presented in this chapter. Chapter seven discusses the results of electrical switching experiments and optical band gap studies on amorphous Ge15Te85-xAgx thin films. Chapter eight gives the conclusion and scope for future work.

In microwave frequency band, the planar technology is mainly used to fabricate electronic circuits. Propagation of surface waves belongs to the significant problem of this technology. Surface waves can cause unwanted coupling among particular parts of the structure and can degrade its parameters. The problem can be solved using an electromagnetic band gap structure (EBG). These periodic structures are able to suppress surface waves in different frequency bands. This thesis is focused on the modeling of these structures in the program COMSOL Multiphysics.

Planar antennas are used in several technical applications. The family of planar antennas contains microstrip antennas, which are very popular due to the low weight, low profile, simple manufacturing and easy mass production. Lower gain and excitation of surface waves are disadvantages of microstrip antennas. The propagation of surface waves can be efficiently suppressed if the conventional substrate is replaced by an electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) substrate. Microstrip antennas on EBG substrates have been presented in an open literature for several years. Nevertheless, no published work is devoted to the design of EBG substrates, which can suppress surface waves at several frequencies those cannot be covered by a single bandgap. In order to reach optimum parameters of designed antennas, selected global optimization methods are applied (genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, ant colony optimization).