In the euro area interest rates have dropped low for almost a decade now and it is anticipated to endure in the years to come. This creates challenges for banks performance, therefore this paper observes whether interest rates effect bank profitability. Further investigating whether loan growth should be an important factor to also consider in the model. We use data for 72 banks from various countries in the Eurozone for the period 2006-2016 and conduct a panel data analysis on this data. Results show that loan growth is not significant and is not a vital component to be included in the model. We find a negative significant relationship between the spread which compromises of long-term deposit rates minus the interest rate controlled by the European Central Bank. This suggests that, a decrease in interest rates can and had eroded bank profitability in the euro area.

We analyse the effects of quantitative easing (QE) on Swedish bank profitability on the four largest banks in Sweden between 2015-2021 by utilizing daily stock prices as a proxy for bank profit. Using an event study approach, we find that QE has a significant positive effect on bank profitability in Sweden as wholesale funding conditions improve. This suggests that structural differences in bank funding have an impact on the effect of QE. Furthermore, we investigate the individual effects of QE on bank profitability. We determine that QE benefits banks with higher credit losses on their balance sheet due to improvements in debt serviceability. Finally, we complement our study by investigating how QE affects debtholders of the banks through credit default swaps (CDS). We find that QE reduces prices on CDS, therefore signalling an improvement in wholesale funding conditions. This indicates that both equity and debtholders perceive the effects of QE positively.

El impacto de la concentración y la eficiencia en la rentabilidad bancaria es un tema ampliamente investigado a través del mundo; sin embargo, el sistema bancario peruano ha sido la excepción. El propósito de este trabajo de investigación es analizar la relevancia del paradigma estructura-conducta-desempeño (ECD) y la hipótesis de eficiencia como determinantes de la rentabilidad bancaria del Perú durante el 2010 y 2019. La metodología econométrica utilizada es el estimador MGM por la naturaleza dinámica del modelo. Los resultados sugieren que la eficiencia técnica, medida con análisis de frontera estocástica, y la eficiencia contable, calculada como un ratio financiero, tienen un efecto positivo y significativo en la rentabilidad bancaria. / Market concentration and efficiency's impact on banking profitability is a widely researched topic throughout the world; however, the Peruvian banking system has been the exception. The purpose of this research is to analyse the relevance of the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) paradigm and the efficiency hypothesis as determinants of banking profitability in Peru between 2010 and 2019. The econometric methodology applied was the GMM estimator due to the model's dynamic nature. The results suggest that technical efficiency, measured by stochastic frontier analysis, and accounting efficiency, calculated as a financial ratio, have a positive and significant effect on banking profitability. / Trabajo de investigación

This thesis is interested in relative performance of highly criticized Czech credit unions. Theoretical part comments on their historical development, makes international comparison and shows possible development of legislation. We created two unique datasets to assess financial performance of Czech credit unions in subsequent empirical part. The first one contains Czech credit unions' and commercial banks' data. The second one is established to make a comparison of Czech credit unions with cooperative banks operating elsewhere in the EU. Both are based on annual data between 2007 and 2012 period. System GMM method is employed as main instrument of our empirical analysis and alternative panel data methods are used as supplementary techniques. We focused our analysis on comparison of relative profitability and stability measures of Czech credit unions. The results revealed their poor performance in the given time period. According to our estimates, they resembled rather small commercial banks than cooperative ones. The negative relationship between Czech credit unions' stability measure (Z-score) and their asset size is especially striking. Moreover, Z- score of Czech credit unions decreased sharply in 2012. Such development was observed neither in case of Czech commercial banks nor in other...

Background: Denmark, along with other European countries, has decided to cut its policy interest rate into negative territory to meet macroeconomic objectives. This has historically been thought of as impossible and impacts commercial banks significantly. As a consequence, concerns have been raised about commercial bank profitability, which is a primary indicator of the banking industry’s soundness. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the relationship between persistently negative interest rates and commercial bank profitability in Denmark, covering an extended timeframe (2011 – 2018, 165 bank years, 21 commercial banks). Method: Bank profitability is measured using the Return on Average Assets (ROAA) and the Net Interest Margin (NIM). The thesis follows a simple form of mixed-methods approach –quantitatively focused, followed by a supplementary qualitative study. For the quantitative part, data is collected through the Orbis database, which provides global company data. We utilized a Fixed Effects Model with strongly balanced panel data, covering 59% of the Danish banking industry’s assets. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with professionals working in the industry to interpret the quantitative findings. Conclusion: The findings of this study show that in the time period observed: Interest rates are not correlated with the NIM; The duration of consecutive negative interest rates (in years) is negatively correlated with the NIM; Interest rates are not correlated with the ROAA; The duration of consecutive negative interest rates (in years) is not correlated with the ROAA; The duration of consecutive negative interest rates seems to be more significant since it takes time for the profitability-reducing effect of negative interest rates to materialize. The ROAA is not impacted by the (years in negative) interest rates, as it is mainly determined by factors under management control.

La presente tesis tiene como objetivo dar de conocimiento el impacto de la diversificación de los ingreso bancarios peruanos y ver su comportamiento en los rendimientos bancarios, este tema ha sido ampliamente usada para países desarrollados tales como bancos asiáticos y europeos, he incluso para Brasil un país sudamericano, cabe resaltar que este tema de investigación no se ha aplicado para bancos peruanos, ya que el tema de la estabilidad bancaria puede deberse a estos factores e otros acontecimientos, por eso es necesario su estudio e implementación. Se estudió el comportamiento de 15 bancos listado en la SBS, en un periodo de análisis de 2015 – 2020, utilizando una metodología de panel de datos dinámicos, conocido como método generalizado de momentos (GMM), con esta metodología lo que se pretende es abordar los posibles problemas de endogeneidad, heterocedastidad y autocorrelación. Nuestros principales hallazgos nos dieron como resultado que la actividad de ingreso no tradicionales no tiene un gran de impacto con la rentabilidad bancaria, por lo contrario, los hechos más importantes se dieron con los ingresos que obtienen los bancos a través de los créditos, ya que estos trajeron consigo mejores resultados en la mejora de la rentabilidad del sistema financiero peruano. Se confirmó en gran instancia que los ingresos tienden a tener un efecto en la rentabilidad bancaria, esto se debió en gran instancia por el lado de los ingreso por intereses, por lo contario en contra de lo esperado los ingresos destinado a la actividad no tradicional, resultaron tener un comportamiento adverso a la rentabilidad, de la misma manera también es necesario dar a conocer nuestras otras variables de estudio, tales como la tasa de crecimiento del PBI, tasa de interés real, la tasa de crecimiento de los activos y el patrimonio, estas mostraron un comportamiento accesible para determinar la evolución de los bancos del sistema financiero peruano. / The objective of this thesis is to give knowledge of the impact of the diversification of Peruvian bank income and see its behavior in bank returns, this topic has been widely used for developed countries such as Asian and European banks, and even for Brazil a country South American, it should be noted that this research topic has not been applied to Peruvian banks, since the issue of bank stability may be due to these factors and other events, which is why its study and implementation is necessary. The behavior of 15 banks listed in the SBS was studied, in an analysis period of 2015 - 2020, using a dynamic data panel methodology, known as the generalized method of moments (GMM), with this methodology what is intended is to address the possible problems of endogeneity, heterocedasty and autocorrelation. Our main findings gave us as a result that non-traditional income activity does not have a great impact on bank profitability, on the contrary, the most important facts occurred with the income obtained by banks through credits, since that these brought better results in improving the profitability of the Peruvian financial system. It was largely confirmed that income tends to have an effect on bank profitability, this was largely due to interest income, on the contrary, income allocated to non-traditional activity was contrary to what was expected. turned out to have an adverse behavior to profitability, in the same way it is also necessary to disclose our other study variables, such as the GDP growth rate, real interest rate, the growth rate of assets and equity, these showed an accessible behavior to determine the evolution of the banks of the Peruvian financial system.

Ces dernières décennies ont été marquées par une succession de crises financières qui trouvent principalement leur origine ou ont été amplifiées par les systèmes bancaires. L'importance du secteur bancaire dans tout processus de développement économique a fait que les crises se sont considérablement ressenties dans la sphère réelle. Le rebondissement et l'extension des crises ont ravivé le débat sur la solidité et la pérennité des banques. Afin d'améliorer la stabilité du système bancaire international et de supprimer les distorsions de concurrence entre pays, le Comité de Bâle sur le Contrôle Bancaire a formulé en 1988 un ensemble de règles prudentielles. La réglementation du capital bancaire est au coeur du dispositif réglementaire. La Commission Bancaire de l' UEMOA s'en est inspirée dans l'élaboration d'un certain nombre de règlements définissant les principales normes minimales de solvabilité, de liquidité et de gestion. L'objet de cette thèse est une réflexion sur les modalités de la solidité et de la pérennité des systèmes bancaires dans les pays de la zone UEMOA. La thèse soulève ainsi plusieurs questions : comment prévenir le risque de défaillance des banques de l' UEMOA à travers un contrôle des variables de structure ? Quels sont les facteurs explicatifs de la rentabilité des banques de la zone UEMOA ? Le CAMEL peut-il être considéré comme un bon système d'alerte précoce des difficultés bancaire dans la zone ? Quel est le niveau d'efficacité des banques de l' UEMOA ? Chaque question fait l'objet d'un essai dans la thèse.Dans le premier essai, le z-score de ROY (1952) est utilisé comme indicateur du risque de défaillance bancaire, et la Méthode des Moments Généralisés comme méthode d'estimation. Dans le deuxième essai, les marges d'intermédiation sont considérées comme proxy de la rentabilité bancaire. Chaque pays ayant ses propres spécificités une estimation sur données de panel à effets spécifiques individuels est adoptée. Dans le troisième essai, un modèle dichotomique qui fait la distinction entre banques en bonne santé et banques probablement fragiles est utilisé et une forme fonctionnelle logistique. Dans le dernier essai, l'approche paramétrique des frontières stochastiques avec une spécification translogarithmique est utilisée pour estimer la fonction de coût total des banques et pour déterminer les scores d'efficacité des banques. / Recent decades have been marked by a succession of financial crisis which are mainly caused or deepen by the banking system. Banking has such an impact on economic growth process that crisis have had direct drawbacks on real life. The length and extent of crisis have raised the debate about the reliability and sustainability of banking. To improve the stability of the internationalbanking system and to put an end to unfair competition between countries, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision in 1988 made a set of prudential rules. The regulation of bank capital is at the center of the regulatory system. The WAMU Banking Commission has drawn inspiration in the development of a number of regulations defining the key minimum standards solvency, liquidity and management.This thesis is a reflection on the terms of the strength and sustainability of the banking systems in countries of the WAEMU zone. The thesis thus raises several questions : how to prevent the risk of failure-bankrupcy- of WAEMU banks through a control of structural factors ? What are the factors explaining the profitability of banks in the WAEMU zone ? Can the CAMELS be considered as a reliable warning system of banking problems in the area ?What is the degree of efficiency of WAEMU banks ? Each raised question consist an essay in the thesis.First, the z-score of ROY (1952) is used as an indicator of the risk of bank failure and the Generalized Method of Moments as estimation tool. Second, intermediation margins are taken as proxy of bank profitability. Known that each country has its own features, estimate panel data to specific individual effects is adopted. Third, a dichotomous model that distinguishes healthybanks from probably weak banks is used. To finish, the parametric approach of stochastic frontiers with translogarithmique arrangement is used to deduct the total cost function of banks and to determine the efficiency of bank scores.

The role that banks as key intermediaries play in the modern economy activities is unquestionable, it is admitted that banks remain one of the key financial intermediaries that provide a variety of services in the economy of every state. However, not all financial intermediaries have a significant impact on modern economies, only a stable and profitable banking sector can adequately play the role of financial intermediary in economy. The bank, as an intermediary in the modern economy must be profitable, and this profitability depends on a number of factors that are referred to in this study as determinants of bank profitability. The effect of internal and external determinants of the bank profitability in South Africa is the main focus of this study. It utilized annual time series internal and external data for the period 2001 to 2013. Quantitative approach methodology using secondary data and panel data technique to measure the impact of the determinants was used in the study. The sample consists of nine banks, followed for 12 years and sampled annually. The results for bank-specific consist of four statistically significant variables such as bank size, non-interest income and non-interest expense and credit risk and four non-significant variables (equity capital, loan, saving deposit, fixe term deposit) also the industry-specific consist only one significant variable (market concentration) while macro-economic determinants consist of three non-significant variables (economic growth, inflation, and lending interest rate). In conclusion, the empirical result shows that the bank specific factors are directly controlled by the Management thereby it has a positive correlation to the bank profitability while the industry specific (market concentration) also positively affects the bank profitability. However, the macroeconomic variables which are beyond the scope of management control were non-significant to profitability but show positive sign. Therefore, the variables which are significant affect positively the bank profitability, and the non-significant variables affect the bank profitability negatively. The findings were consistent with mixed results found in prior literature. / Business Management / M. Com. (Business Management)

Banker är katalysatorn i det finansiella systemet och har en viktig roll för ekonomins tillväxt och för att människors välfärd ska kunna växa. Att en bank är lönsam är inte av vikt enbart för den enskilda banken, utan för hela samhället i stort. Runt om i världen finns många olika sorters banker, som drivs på olika sätt och har olika ägarkonstellationer. Affärsbanker i Sverige ägs av flera tusentals aktieägare och drivs på en operativ nivå av en utvald VD. På en organisatorisk nivå så utgörs beslutsfattandet istället av en utvald styrelse. I Schweiz finns banker med olika ägarstruktur, där en av associationsformerna är partnerskapsbanker. Dessa bedrivs av partners, ofta väldigt få (8–10 personer) som agerar styrelse, ägare och VD. Det finns tidigare studier som undersökt hur lönsamheten påverkas hos banker, där dessa studier har sett till hur utländskt, statligt och privatägande har påverkat bankernas lönsamhet. Dessa studier uppvisar emellertid motstridiga resultat. Denna studie valt att belysa två extremfall, det vill säga banker med starkt centrerat ägarstruktur (partnerskapsbanker) och banker med extremt spritt ägande (svenska storbanker). Syftet med denna studie har varit att explorativt undersöka om banker med olika ägarstrukturer uppvisar lönsamhetsskillnader och vad dessa beror av. Detta genom en statistisk undersökning där ett antal vedertagna förklaringsvariabler används. En jämförande kvantitativ studie har tillämpats och i studien har tre stycken schweiziska partnerskapsbanker och tre stycken svenska affärsbanker jämförts med varandra samt analyserats under perioden 2014–2018. Den data som insamlats baseras på en nyckeltalsanalys samt en PEST-analys, där interna och externa nyckeltal samlats in. Där den insamlade data sedan har analyserats med konstruerade regressionsmodeller för att undersöka, vilka, eller om några av de utvalda förklaringsvariablerna förklarar lönsamheten. Genom studies resultat kan vi fastställa att lönsamhetskillnader mellan partnerskapsbanker och affärsbanker finns. Emellertid så kan vi konstatera att de förklaringsvariablerna som studien använts sig av inte kan förklara dessa lönsamhetskillnader på lönsamhetsmåtten räntabilitet på totalt kapital och räntabilitet på eget kapital. För att helt kunna undanröja misstanke om att förklaringsvariablerna inte är signifikanta, så krävs ytterligare forskning med en längre tidsperiod. Denna studie har en begränsning i antalet år, där den period som observerats lett till att studien fått färre observationer än önskvärt. Materialet som idag finns att tillgå är begränsat till åren 2014–2018. Detta beror på att de schweiziska partnerskapsbankerna först 2014 började publicera sina årsredovisningar offentligt. Studien sträcker sig till 2018 för att det är det längsta tillgängliga materialet som kan undersökas. Tidigare studier inom området som använder sig av samma förklaringsvariabler som valts i denna studie och dessa uppvisar statistiskt signifikanta värden på de flesta utvalda förklaringsvariablerna, med några undantag. En skillnad, mellan tidigare studier och denna som är av stor betydelse är att värdena baseras på längre tidsperioder alternativt att fler banker har observerats, vilket allt annat lika ger fler observationer. Studiens resultat analyseras sedan utifrån tidigare studier samt principal-agent teorin. / Banks could be seen as the catalyst for the financial system and therefore often seen as an important role for the economy's growth and for peoples’ wellbeing. It’s not only important for the bank itself to be profitable, but also for the country as a whole. Around the globe there are quite a large number of different banks, that is run differently and has different types of owner structures. Commercial banks in Sweden are owned by thousands and thousands of owners and are driven on an operative level by a CEO and with an executive board on an organizational level. In Switzerland there is a broad spectrum of different banks and different corporate forms. One of them is partnership banks, these banks have partners (i.e. owners) who work as CEOs’, executive board and owners combined. There are other studies that has analyzed the relationship between bank ownership and profitability. These studies show inconsistent results. This study aims to examine two extreme cases, Swedish banks with a broad ownership base versus swiss banks with a very limited number of owners to illustrate how the ownership affects the profitability. The study aims to examine why these banks exhibit different levels of profitability and if these differences can be explained by a few conventional explanatory variables. To examine these banks the study has done a comparative quantitative study, where three swiss partnership banks has been compared with three Swedish banks during the period 2014-2018. The data that has been gathered is based on a key-figure analysis and a PEST-analysis. The data has then been analysed with constructed regression models to understand, if or to which extent the explanatory variables explains the differences in profitability. The results of this study exhibit that there are differences in profitability between the Swedish and Swiss banks. However, the study can’t establish if most of the chosen explanatory variables are significant. And therefore, the study cannot establish whether or not these variables have an impact on the profitability key-figures return on equity and return on total capital. To be sure if these variables are significant or not, future studies need to examine a longer time period. This study has a shortage of data due to the swiss banks. These banks started to publish annual reports in 2014. It’s worth mentioning that previous studies that have used the same variables have been able to show that these are significant, or at least most of them. This is often due to longer examined time periods or a larger number of banks included in the data. The results of this study have been analysed and compared with previous studies and the agency theory.

Existen posturas variadas respecto a los factores que participan y cómo estos influyen en la determinación del spread bancario o rentabilidad bancaria, representado también por la eficiencia bancaria. La investigación muestra cómo los factores influyen en el spread de forma positiva o negativa en países en desarrollo, desarrollados y en transición, así como en diversas regiones a nivel mundial. El cálculo del spread se representa por la diferencia entre el promedio de la tasa de interés de los préstamos y los depósitos en un periodo determinado, aunque otro grupo de autores utiliza el Margen de Interés Neto como la medida para el cálculo de rentabilidad, pues este analiza los determinantes en un escenario de equilibrio general, considerando todas las operaciones del banco. La investigación sugiere que un elevado spread se relaciona con un sistema bancario ineficiente; asimismo, se revela que los países Latinoamericanos en los últimos 20 años presentan un elevado spread comparados con otras regiones del mundo. En otro momento, se detalla la evolución del sector bancario, participantes y el rol que cumple en la economía de un país. En la tercera sección, se explica la política monetaria y su relación con las tasas de interés, mientras que en la cuarta sección se muestra el proceso de intermediación financiera. En el quinto capítulo, se describe las variables que participan en la determinación del spread; luego de ello, se exponen las principales medidas adoptadas por la regulación bancaria para reducir los riesgos de la operación. Finalmente, se contrastan las variables utilizas de algunos modelos utilizados para la determinación del spread bancario. / There are varying points of views regarding factors involved and how they influence the determination of bank spread or bank profitability, also represented by bank efficiency. The research shows how the factors influence the spread positively or negatively in developing, developed and transition countries, as well as in various regions worldwide. The calculation of the spread is represented by the difference between the average interest rate on loans and deposits in a given period, although another group of authors uses the Net Interest Margin as the measure for calculating profitability, as it analyzes the determinants in a general equilibrium scenario, considering all the bank's operations. The research suggests that a high spread is related to an inefficient banking system, likewise, it is revealed that Latin American countries in the last 20 years present a high spread compared to other regions of the world. Another section details the evolution of the banking sector, its participants and the role it plays in a country's economy. The third section explains monetary policy and its relationship with interest rates, while the fourth section shows the financial intermediation process. The fifth chapter describes the variables involved in the determination of the spread, followed by a description of the main measures adopted by banking regulation to reduce the risks of the operation. Finally, the variables used in some of the models used to determine the bank spread are contrasted. / Trabajo de Suficiencia Profesional