Background:          The growing number of electric vehicles gives rise to a whole new reverse supply chain. Once the electric vehicle batteries reach their end-of-life, societal and governmental pressure forces automotive manufacturers to set up a network for disposing the hazardous batteries. Although, the volumes of returned batteries remain low, volumes will increase in upcoming years. Current networks and processes related to the return flow of electric vehicle batteries are not well established, nor well defined. Thus, creating an urgency to develop efficient collection networks.   Purpose:                  The purpose of this study is to investigate how reverse logistics networks are currently set up and to provide an overview of how the different actors and processes are connected. In addition, this thesis aims to identify challenges encountered by logistics providers and recyclers. By doing so, we hope to contribute to the research gap of which factors that constitutes a bottleneck for further development of the reverse logistics chain of electric vehicle batteries.   Method:                  The thesis conducts an interview study and is qualitative in nature. Semi-structured interviews generated empirical data, which was analysed through cross-case analysis incorporating a thematic analysis. Through this analysis we were able to achieve new theoretical understandings in connection to institutional theory.   Conclusion:             Through empirical findings a detailed framework of the reverse logistics chain of EVBs is portrayed. Furthermore, different challenges span over the processes illustrated in the framework. This presents an overview which is not found in current literature and extends current research on this topic.

As diimidas naftálicas simétricas têm sido vastamente estudadas devido suas propriedades químicas, ópticas, e eletrônicas. A possibilidade de modular suas propriedades com a substituição de grupos diversos na formação da imida, viabiliza aplicações em dispositivos eletrônicos, conversão de energia e produção de redes de coordenação metalo-orgânicas. Neste trabalho sintetizou-se uma série de 5 diimidas naftálicas (NDIs) simétricas com substituintes aromáticos. Foram analisadas as características espectroscópicas e eletrônicas com obtenção dos valores de band-gap óptico através de ensaios de voltametria cíclica e cálculos teóricos (DFT), mostrando a influência dos substituintes nas propriedades eletrônicas. Estas moléculas apresentam indícios de agregação em determinados solventes tornando possível a produção de filmes finos. As NDIs produzidas foram intercaladas em uma matriz inorgânica lamelar, o pentóxido de vanádio amorfo, e melhorando consideravelmente, via de regra, a capacidade específica de carga quando analisados em sistemas trocadores de íon lítio, aplicados geralmente em cátodos de bateria, com valores da ordem de 190 mA.h.g-1 (sob 100 uA, variação de E +1,2V à -1,2V). É provavelmente um dos primeiros trabalhos a utilizar NDIs em sistemas mistos de matrizes inorgânicas aplicados em trocadores de íons. Algumas apresentam potencial para dispositivos de conversão de luz em eletricidade. / Symmetric naphthalic diimides have been extensively studied due to their chemical, optical, and electronic properties. The possibility of modulating their properties by substitution with several groups in the formation of imides allows diverse applications in electronic devices, energy conversion, production of metallo-organic frameworks (MOFs). In this thesis, a series of 5 symmetrical aromatic-substituted naphthalic diimides (NDIs) were sinthesized. We have studied their optical and electronic characteristics obtaining optical band-gap with cyclic voltammetry tests and theoretical calculations (DFT), showing the influence of substituent in the electronic properties. Some of these imides may aggregate in certain solvents allowing this way the production thin films. The NDIs were intercalated in the inorganic intercalation matrix of amorphous vanadium pentoxide, and showed generally considerable improvement in the specific charge capacity when used in lithium ion exchange systems, that are usually applied in battery cathodes, reaching values of the order of 190 mA.h.g-1 (under 100 uA, E variation of + 1.2V to -1.2V). This is probably one of the first works using NDIs in mixed systems to applied inorganic matrices as ion exchangers. Some of them may be used for light conversion to electricity devices.

Thesis (Master of Engineering in Electrical Engineering)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / The purpose of this paper was to design and develop an electrical power train for an Urban Concept electric vehicle geared to complete the Shell Eco-Marathon Africa in 2019. Various technologies which make up the electrical drive train of an electrical vehicle were also reviewed which include the battery pack, the battery management system, the motors, the motor management system and the human interface. Upon completion of this, the various topologies best suited for this project were selected, designed, constructed and developed. Two motors were re-designed and constructed for this vehicle and the motor drive was also constructed to control these motors. A Lithium-Ion battery pack was constructed and developed to drive the motors and an off-the-shelf battery management system was purchased and developed to suit the requirements for the Shell Eco- Marathon competition rules. A human interface was also developed in order for the driver to see various parameters of the electric vehicle defined by the Shell Eco-Marathon competition rules. After each component of the drive train was constructed, they underwent various testing procedures to determine the efficiency of each individual component and the overall efficiency for the complete drive train of this electric vehicle was ascertained. The Product Lifecycle Management Competency Centre group developed the chassis for this vehicle. For this reason, only the electric subsystems were evaluated and a simulation was completed of the complete drive train. After the complete drive train was constructed and all the individual subsystems evaluated and simulated, a vehicle with an overall efficiency of about sixty percent was expected and the completed drive train should be adequate enough to complete the entire Shell Eco-Marathon Africa circuit.

Un modèle décrivant les phénomènes physiques internes de batteries lithium-ion est développé pour une détection précise de leur état, avec application au domaine de l'industrie automobile. Pour pouvoir utiliser le modèle à des fins de contrôle de charge rapide, un observateur de vieillissement est tout d'abord conçu et intégré au modèle de batterie. Dans un second temps, une stratégie de contrôle de charge rapide robuste est conçue. Elle est basée sur un contrôleur Crone capable de gérer les grandes incertitudes paramétriques du modèle de batterie tout en atteignant l'objectif de charge rapide. Enfin, quelques simplifications du modèle de batterie, de la technique d'optimisation et de la définition des profils de charge rapide sont proposées et évaluées afin de rendre l'ensemble de la stratégie de recharge rapide applicable à un système embarqué de gestion de batterie. / A physics-based battery model is developed for an accurate state-detection of batteries in the automotive industry. In order to use the model for the purpose of fast charging control an aging observer is designed and integrated to the battery model. In a subsequent step a robust fast charging control is introduced to design a controller able to deal with large parametric uncertainties of the battery model while achieving the fast charging target. Finally some simplifications in the battery model structure, in the optimization technique and in the definition of fast charging profiles are proposed and evaluated to make the whole model applicable for an onboard battery management system.

A modelagem matemática por meio de equações diferenciais é uma importante ferramenta para prever o comportamento de baterias redox de vanádio, pois ela pode contribuir para o aperfeiçoamento do produto e melhor entendimento dos princípios da sua operação. Os estudos de modelagem podem ser aliados à análise assintótica no intuito de promover reduções ou simplificações que tornem os modelos menos complexos, isso é feito a partir da observação da importância que cada termo exerce sobre as equações. Tais simplificações são úteis neste contexto, visto que os modelos geralmente abordam uma célula apenas - a menor unidade operacional da bateria - enquanto aplicações reais exigem o uso de dezenas ou centenas delas implicando em uma maximização do uso de recursos computacionais. Neste trabalho, foram investigadas múltiplas formas de reduções assintóticas que empregadas na construção dos modelos puderam acelerar o tempo de processamento em até 2,46 vezes ou reduzir os requisitos de memória principal em até 11,39%. As simulações computacionais foram executadas pelo software COMSOL Multiphysics v. 4.4, e também por scripts desenvolvidos em ambiente de programação MATLAB. A validação dos resultados foi feita comparando-os a dados experimentais presentes na literatura. Tal abordagem permitiu também validar as rotinas implementadas para a simulação dos modelos comparando suas soluções com aquelas providas pelo COMSOL. / Mathematical modelling using differential equations is an important tool to predict the behavior of vanadium redox batteries, since it may contribute to improve the device performance and lead to a better understanding of the principles of its operation. Modelling can be complemented by asymptotic analysis as a mean to promote reductions or simplifications that make models less complex. Such simplifications are useful in this context, whereas these models usually addresses one cell only the smallest operating unit while real applications demand tens or hundreds cells implying on larger computational requirements. In this research, several options for asymptotic reductions were investigated and, applied to different models, were able to speed up the processing time in 2.46× or reduce the memory requirements up to 11.39%. The computational simulations were executed by COMSOL Multiphysics v.4.4, also by in-house code developed in MATLAB. The validation of results was done by comparing it to experimental results available in literature. Additionally, correlating the results provided by COMSOL with the ones arising from the implemented sub-routines allowed to validate the developed algorithm.

Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) systems have become essential to modern industries that require continuous power supply to manage critical operations. Since a failure of a single battery will affect the entire backup system, UPS systems providers must replace any battery before it runs dead. In this regard, automated monitoring tools are required to determine when a battery needs replacement. Nowadays, a primitive method for monitoring the battery backup system is being used for this task. This thesis presents a classification model that uses data mining cleansing and processing techniques to remove useless information from the data obtained from the sensors installed in the batteries in order to improve the quality of the data and determine at a given moment in time if a battery should be replaced or not. This prediction model will help UPS systems providers increase the efficiency of battery monitoring procedures. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

När konsekvenserna för miljön av att använda förbränningsmotorer blir allt mer påtagliga ökar behovet av alternativ för transport av människor och varor. Elfordon säljs i större utsträckning än någonsin förr. Men batterierna i elfordonen är även de en belastning på miljön när de produceras. Om batterierna skulle användas ytterligare efter att de inte längre går att använda i fordon skulle den relativa miljöpåverkan från produktionen minskas och det blir lättare att kompensera för den påverkan som redan skett för varje batteri. För att uppnå detta behöver batteriernas karakteristik undersökas. Degraderingen behöver fastställas för att beräkna hur mycket energi de kan cykla under sitt liv. Hur denna energi kan nyttjas effektivt och meningsfullt i ett modernt elnät är även det av vikt. Vad händer sedan vid slutet av batteriernas liv? Återvinning är ett viktigt steg i processen för att minimera klimatförändringar istället för att lämna batterierna på deponi. Resultaten visar att mängden cykler ett batteri klarar ner till en viss kapacitetsnivå beror kraftigt på arbetstemperatur, urladdningsdjup, C-förhålland och batterityp. Hybricons batterier av LTO-typ uppskattas klara som mest 11 459 cykler vid 10 % urladdningsdjup och 2 490 cykler vid 50 % urladdningsdjup. Användningsområden i den här rapporten där batterilager förväntas kunna användas effektivt är som kortslutningsförstärkning och begränsning av spänningshöjningar hos kunder med hög förimpedans i landsbygdsnät samt som UPS:er till telekommunikation. Kostnader för dessa applikationer uppskattas att kosta mellan ca 1700 kr/kWh och 7600 kr/kWh beroende på konstruktion och andrahandspris på batterierna. Det värde ett batteri uppskattas ha i den här rapporten är den mängd energi det kan lagra under sitt liv, vilket varierar beroende på de faktorer som nämnts tidigare och gör att varje enskilt fall behöver analyseras. Slutsatsen blir att det finns förutsättningar som gör det möjligt att effektivt och ekonomiskt fördelaktigt använda batterier i elnätet, särskilt då utvecklingstrenden visar att utrustningen ständigt blir billigare och tekniken bättre. Dock behöver fler analyser utföras, främst på åldringen i batteriernas andra liv. / As the consequences for the environment of using internal combustion engines are becoming increasingly apparent, the need for alternatives for the transport of people and goods increases. Electric vehicles are sold to a greater extent than ever before. But the batteries in electric vehicles are also a burden on the environment when they are produced. If the batteries were to be used further after they could no longer be used in cars, the relative environmental impact of the production would be reduced and it would be easier to compensate for the impact already made by each battery. To achieve this, the characteristics of the batteries need to be investigated. The degradation needs to be determined to calculate how much energy they can cycle during their life. How this energy can be used efficiently and in a meaningful way in a modern grid is also important. What then happens at the end of battery life? Recycling is an important step in the process to minimize climate change instead of leaving the batteries in landfill. The results show that the amount of cycles a battery can handle down to a certain capacity level depends heavily on operating temperature, discharge depth, C-ratio and battery type. Hybricons batteries of LTO-type is estimated to sustain for 11 459 cycles at 10 % depth of discharge och 2 490 cycles at 50 % depth of discharge. Applications in this report, where battery storage is expected to be used efficiently, is short-circuit amplification and limitation of voltage hikes at customers with high impedance in rural networks as well as UPSs to telecommunications. Costs for these applications is estimated to cost between circa 170 USD/kWh och 760 USD/kWh depending on construction type and second hand price of the batteries. The value of a battery is estimated in this report is the amount of energy it can store during its life, which varies depending on the factors mentioned earlier and necessitates analysis of each case. The conclusion is that there are conditions that make it possible to efficiently and with economical gain use batteries in the grid, especially as the trend shows that the equipment is constantly getting cheaper and the technology is getting better. Although more analysis is required, foremost on the aging of the batteries second life.

A busca por fontes de energia é algo inerente à história da sociedade. O impacto da revolução industrial e a evolução da produção manufaturada, forçaram a um crescimento do uso dos combustíveis fósseis. Crises do petróleo, crescimento populacional, tratados ambientais e o reconhecimento da influência das atividades humanas nos fenômenos de mudanças climáticas levaram ao aprofundamento das pesquisas e aplicações em Energias Renováveis e fontes menos poluentes. Dentre essas diversas pesquisas destaca-se o desenvolvimento de células eletroquímicas, que em muitas vezes, estão relacionadas à problemas de poluição ambiental. Células eletroquímicas são dispositivos capazes de gerar e acumular energia através de reações químicas e bioquímicas. Estudos nessa área são importantes, visto que muitas vezes existem dúvidas de ordem técnica para suas aplicações no design de produtos eletroeletrônicos, que buscam reduzir seu impacto, principalmente, no descarte final. Neste sentido, a presente pesquisa buscou contribuir com dados técnico-científicos orientadores para a geração da microenergia, a partir da utilização de materiais naturais para fabricação da célula bioquímica. Diante desse objetivo, foram selecionados materiais naturais dentre um conjunto de folhas de espécies comuns no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, com possível potencial para atuarem como eletrólito na microgeração de energia de corrente contínua. Após os ensaios de caracterização, foram montados sistemas de células eletroquímicas composta por eletrodos de Cobre e Zinco e os materiais selecionados como eletrólito. Os resultados apontaram que as folhas de limão, de bergamota, e de laranja apresentam um potencial para geração de energia. Com base na pesquisa, verificou-se que existem boas possibilidades para microgeração de energia utilizando eletrólitos com matérias naturais. / The search for energy sources is something inherent in the history of society. The impact of the industrial revolution and the evolution of manufactured production forced the use of fossil fuels to grow. Oil crises, population growth, environmental treaties and the recognition of the influence of human activities on the phenomena of climate change have led to the deepening of research and applications in Renewable Energies and less polluting sources. Among these several types of research the development of electrochemical cells, which in many cases, are related to the problems of environmental pollution, stands out. Electrochemical cells are devices capable of generating and accumulating energy through chemical and biochemical reactions. Studies in this area are important since there are often technical doubts for their applications in the design of electrical and electronic products, which seek to reduce their impact, mainly in the final disposal. In this sense, the present research sought to contribute to technical-scientific data guiding for the generation of micro-energy, from the use of natural materials to manufacture the biochemical cell. In view of this objective, natural materials were selected from a set of leaves of common species in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, with a potential to act as an electrolyte in the micro energy generation of direct current. After the characterization tests, electrochemical cell systems composed of Copper and Zinc electrodes and the materials selected as electrolyte were assembled. The results indicated that lemon, bergamot, and orange leaves have a potential for energy generation. Based on the research, it was verified that there are good possibilities for microgeneration of energy using electrolytes with natural materials.

Este trabalho apresenta a arquitetura de hardware, software e os resultados da implantação de um sistema automação industrial em ambiente siderúrgico, especificamente nas Baterias de Coque do grupo Usinas Siderúrgicas de Minas Gerais S/A Usiminas, precisamente na Usina de Cubatão, localizada no município de Cubatão, estado de São Paulo - Brasil. O sistema de automação monitora em tempo real o processo de coqueificação através da obtenção da temperatura na exaustão dos gases do processo de aquecimento do carvão mineral. O objetivo é estabelecer a relação da temperatura dos gases de exaustão, proveniente do aquecimento do carvão mineral versus a determinação do tempo ideal para o respectivo desenfornamento. O ganho de produção gerado pela implantação deste sistema é apresentado ao final deste trabalho. / This work presents the architecture of hardware, software and the results of implantation of a steel industrial automation environment, specifically in the group of Coke Drums Steel Units of Minas Gerais S/A - Usiminas, precisely in Cubatão Plant, located in Cubatão, state of Sao Paulo - Brazil. The automation system monitors the real time coking process by raising the temperature in the exhaust gases of the heating process the coal. The aim is to establish the relationship between the temperatures of the exhaust gases, from the heating coal versus determining the optimal time for the respective furnace charging. The gain in output generated by the deployment of this system is provided at the end of this work.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi investigar o modelo matemático para baterias de chumbo-ácido, usada em aplicações veiculares, mais adequado para a condição de descarga, que ocorre durante o teste de Cold Crank, e propor uma metodologia para identificar os parâmetros da bateria, a partir de ensaios experimentais. A simulação do teste de Cold Crank foi a motivação para o início da pesquisa. Dentre os diversos modelos pesquisados, foram selecionados aqueles que representam a dinâmica da bateria durante a descarga e que são baseados em circuitos elétricos. O modelo de Jackey foi escolhido, por possuir um circuito equivalente com adequada complexidade para o objetivo estudado. Após algumas simplificações e usando a 1ª Lei de Kirchhoff, definiu-se a equação da bateria, que calcula a tensão nos terminais para um dado valor de corrente de descarga constante. Adotaram-se ainda algumas leis de formação propostas por Jackey e uma forma alternativa para a descrição de R1. Alguns parâmetros da equação da bateria foram calculados usando a curva de tensão em aberto (OCV) em função do estado de carga (SOC), a equação da variação do estado de carga em função do tempo (SOC(t)) e o circuito simplificado para o instante inicial. Para os demais parâmetros, uma metodologia de resolução foi apresentada e implementada em ambiente MatLab®. Através da utilização de curvas de descarga experimentais e com o auxílio dos algoritmos de otimização genético e de busca local, os parâmetros desconhecidos foram estimados de forma a minimizar o erro entre os valores calculados e os valores experimentais. Por fim, foi apresentada a variação dos parâmetros em função da corrente de descarga. Com o uso das curvas que aproximam essa variação, alguns exemplos foram gerados para mostrar que os valores calculados continuam coerentes, tanto em forma quanto em escala, quando comparados com valores experimentais para outros níveis de corrente. Dessa forma, o objetivo do trabalho foi alcançado uma vez que a metodologia aplicada apresentou bons resultados mesmo com o número limitado de curvas de descarga experimentais. / The aim of this study was to investigate the most suitable lead-acid battery model, used in vehicular application, to the discharge condition which occurs during a Cold Crank test, and to propose a methodology to identify the battery parameters from experimental tests. The Cold Crank simulation was the motivation for this research. Among the various studied models, were selected those that describe the battery dynamic during a discharge process and that are based on electrical circuits. Jackey model was chosen because it has an equivalent circuit with suitable complexity to the aim. After some simplifications and using 1st Kirchhoffs Law, the battery equation was defined, which calculates the terminal voltage for a given constant discharge current. Also, it was adopted some laws proposed by Jackey and an alternative way to describe R1. Some parameters from battery equation were defined using the open circuit voltage (OCV) as function of state of charge (SOC), the equation of SOC variation as function of time and simplified circuit for the initial time. For the others parameters, a solving methodology was introduced and implemented in Matlab® environment. Usage of experimental discharge curves and with the help of genetic and local search algorithms, the unknown parameters were estimated in order to minimize the error between calculated and experimental values. Finally, it was presented the parameters variation as function of discharge current. With the use of curves that approximate this variation, some examples were generated to show that the calculated values remain consistent in both shape and range when compared to experimental values for others current levels. In this way, the aim was reached since methodology produced good results even with limited number of experimental discharge curves.