Uppsatsen utreder ifall det finns en möjlighet till kostnadsbesparingar genom att erbjuda en stor andel av den äldre befolkningen hjälpmedel. Dessa hjälpmedel är tänkta att ha i förebyggande syfte för att minska antalet höftfrakturer. Perspektivet för analysen är samhällsekonomiskt, det vill säga alla möjligheter till kostnadsbesparingar antas tillkomma samma aktör. En uppdelning mellan landsting och kommun görs med andra ord inte. I en cost-benefit kalkyl görs en uträkning på vilken nettoeffekt som uppnås på den samhälleliga välfärden genom att antalet höftfrakturer minskar. En makroundersökning ligger till grund för de hjälpmedel som studeras. De två hjälpmedel som tas upp i rapporten är höftskyddsbyxan och rollatorn. Resultatet visar att man vid en viss minskning av olycksfallsfrekvensen kan uppnå en positiv nettoeffekt på den samhälleliga välfärden. Utifrån undersökningar som har gjorts på reduceringen av olycksfall som användningen av hjälpmedel bidrar till, visar kalkylerna resultat på vilka kostnadsbesparingar som kan göras. I framräkningarna för de kommande 45 åren visas det hur dessa kostnadsbesparingar kontinuerligt kommer att öka i och med att den äldre andelen av befolkningen ökar. Uppsatsen kan utgöra underlag för diskussion om huruvida vårdens organisation tjänar på att byta perspektiv från suboptimering av olika områden till mer långsiktiga samarbeten.

Global warming is an international problem which has led to that many corporations today has an increased environmental awareness. This thesis includes a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) approach which evaluates whether carbon offsetting is a profitable alternative for corporations and society wide. The study is predominately focusing on the emissions of the greenhouse gas . The calculations of CBA show the difference between the scenarios with or without the carbon offsetting. In the CBA approach effects are divided into benefits and costs. The study includes a case study of Husqvarna AB and is carried through with aim to get a decision support whether or not to make the corporation carbon neutral. Basic data from Husqvarna AB has been used.

China’s economy has experienced a spectacular growth and achieved a remarkable success over the past three decades. Opportunities created by the striking economic growth have led China’s most important investment markets, real estate and stock markets to undertake an enormous transformation and development. This paper is concentrated on examining the relationship between the returns on Chinese real estate and stock markets. In particular, the paper attempts to investigate whether the returns are correlated between them, and to explore the potential diversification effects on creating a balanced portfolio including both real estate and stock assets. The empirical study is conducted on the basis of monthly data collected from year 2005 to 2010. Statistical tests are applied to measure the magnitude of return correlations between Chinese real estate and stock markets. The results of the empirical study indicate that the monthly returns on Chinese real estate and stock markets are not correlated. And when investing in China’s capital markets, diversification benefits could be achieved by creating a balanced portfolio including both real estate and stock assets. Keywords: Return Correlation; Diversification Benefit; Chinese Real Estate market; Chinese Stock Market

Three senior consultants, that primary work with organisational development and project management has created a model, named PENG, specially adjusted for evaluation of IT-investments. The purpose of this model is to evaluate both the financial and the “softer” values of IT. According to IT’s major role of supporting the business concept, “soft” val-ues like; improved customer service, fewer complaints, more reliable deliveries and et cetera becomes very important. An interesting feature of the PENG-model is that it promises to, as the name indicates (PENG means coin in Swedish), transform all aspects of IT into monetary terms. This makes it possible to quantifiably measure all the aspects of IT, not just the ones that can be counted for as reduced costs. This attribute makes PENG different compared to other models that we have found. In this thesis we have chosen to study how the use of PENG affects evaluations of IT-investments, by focusing on both restricting and enabling aspects. The studies that have been performed are mainly based on qualitative methods. We have used a literature study to see which aspects that are of most importance when evaluating IT. Further on we have studied descriptions, by the originators of PENG, to see how an actual evaluation process is supposed to be done. Based on this we have performed an in-terview at Kalmar county council, who have used and are using the model in several of their IT-projects, in order to see how PENG serves in real life situations. We have found out that the PENG-model certainly has good intentions in capturing the complexity inherent in IT, by valuing “soft” and “hard” aspects and for illustrating an in-vestment from different perspectives. The model involves a working procedure consisting of ten steps that serves as a guideline for the evaluator. However, the model lacks a clear framework describing how the actual work in each step shall be performed. The model generates in a clear and easily understandable result that can be understood through out the organisation, this mostly due to the use of money as the unit of measure-ment. The quality of the result is however largely dependent on the judgements of the persons involved. Depending on how you value the benefits and costs of IT, you will end up with diverse results. From this, we can see that the model has problems in terms of trustworthiness. We believe that PENG, despite its credibility issues, can be useful when discussing IT in order to illustrate the implications of an investment. We can also see the worth of the model when comparing different kinds of IT-investments; to see where the money can be of best use. The study further shows that PENG can be used in any type of organisation, even though it may be better suited for the public sector, where “soft” bene-fits are an essential part of the business concept. / Tre senior konsulter som primärt arbetar med organisationsutveckling och projektstyrning har tagit fram en modell speciellt utvecklad för utvärderingar av IT-investeringar. Modellen heter PENG och har som syfte att utvärdera både finansiella och kvalitativa aspekter av IT. Då IT har som primärt syfte att stödja kärnverksamheten, så blir ”mjuka” aspekter såsom, ökad kundservice, färre klagomål, säkrare och mer spårbara leveranser et cetera mycket viktiga. En intressant egenskap som PENG-modellen besitter är att den utlovar att, som namnet antyder, värdera alla aspekter av IT i monetära termer. Detta skapar möjligheter att kvantitativt mäta IT:s totala påverkan i en organisation, vilket gör denna modell annorlunda från övriga modeller som vi har funnit. Denna uppsats har som syfte att studera hur användandet av PENG-modellen påverkar utvärderingen av IT-investeringar. Studien är baserad på kvalitativ metodik. Till att börja med har vi genomfört en litteratur-studie för att undersöka vilka aspekter som skiljer en IT-investering från andra typer inve-steringar, samt för att ta reda på vad som krävs för att en IT-utvärdering skall bli så rättvisande som möjligt. Efter detta har vi studerat beskrivningar, gjorda av upphovsmännen bakom PENG, för att undersöka hur modellen är tänkt att användas. Baserat på detta har vi sedan genomfört en intervju vid Kalmar läns landsting, vilka har använt och fortfarande använder sig av denna modell i flera av sina IT-projekt, för att undersöka hur väl modellen fungerar i realiteten. Baserat på detta drar vi slutsatsen att PENG-modellen har goda intentioner i att återspegla komplexiteten i IT, genom att värdera ”mjuka” och ”hårda” nyttor och att beskriva investeringar från olika perspektiv. Modellen består av tio steg som syftar till att guida utvärderaren genom hela processen. Modellen saknar dock tydliga riktlinjer som beskriver hur varje steg av utvärderingen skall gå till och många beslut blir därför godtyckliga. Modellen generar i ett klart och lättförståeligt resultat, vilket beror på att alla aspekter av IT omvandlas till kronor. Kvaliteten på resultatet är dock till stor del beroende av de bedömningar som de involverade personerna gör under utvärderingsprocessen. Beroende på hur nyttor och kostnader av IT värderas så kommer detta att resultera i olika resultat. Av detta drar vi slutsatsen att modellen har trovärdighetsproblem. Vi menar dock att mo-dellen, trots detta, kan vara användbar för att illustrera innebörden av IT-investeringar. Vi kan också se att modellen har potential att jämföra olika IT-investeringar, i syfte att utvärdera var pengarna kan komma till störst nytta. Vidare visar vår studie att PENG kan användas i alla typer av organisationer, även om den troligen är bäst lämpad för den offentliga sektorn, där ”mjuka” nyttor är en viktig del av kärnverksamheten.

I den här uppsatsen undersöks och utvärderas metoder för att beräkna indirekta socioekonomiska effekter till följd av transportinvesteringar. De projekt som ligger till grund för denna jämförelse finns på gemensam europeisk samt på nationell nivå. Projekten har använt sig antingen av kvantitativ analys, i form av multikriterieanalys alternativt cost-benefit analys, eller av kvalitativ analys, för att utvärdera effekterna. Slutsatserna består i att det är svårt att beräkna dessa effekter och att det därför är viktigt att metoden speglar den underliggande informationen. En verbal metod som speglar osäkerheten är ofta att föredra framför en metod som presenterar exakta monetära mått trots att den underliggande informationen är osäker.

Collaborative project delivery methods are believed to contribute to faster completions times, lower overall project costs and higher quality. Contracts are expected to influence the degree of collaboration on a given project since they allow or restrict certain lines of communication in the decision making process. Various delivery systems rank differently on the spectrum of collaboration. Because collaborative project delivery methods require owners and AEC stakeholders to meet frequently early in the delivery process, they are thought to add additional upfront costs to the project. The purpose of this study is to test if collaborative project delivery methods impart enough value so that the upfront cost incurred at the beginning of project is eventually surpassed by realized savings. Ideally, the extreme forms of project delivery methods, that is, Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Design-Bid-Build (DBB), should be compared to test the effects of collaboration on benefits to the owner. Due to difficulty in obtaining data on IPD and similarly scaled DBB projects, for this study, their close cousins, CM-at-Risk (CMR) and Competitive Sealed Proposal (CSP) were compared. The study engaged statistical comparison of cost of change orders and overall project cost performance of 17 CMR and 13 CSP projects of similar scales by same owner. Project cost performance observed under CMR projects was found significantly more than those under CSP. This study is expected to help boost confidence in the benefits of collaborative project delivery methods. It is likely that the results will encourage acceptance of IPD for public projects. Owners who were previously discouraged by the increased upfront cost of collaborative projects may also find interest in the results of this study.

he subject of this thesis is ethical aspects of decision-making concerning social risks. It is argued that a model for risk management must acknowledge several ethical aspects and, most crucial among these, the individual’s right not to be unfairly exposed to risks. Article I takes as its starting point the demand frequently expressed in the risk literature for consistent risk management. It is maintained that a model focusing on cost-benefit analysis does not respect the rights of the individual. Two alternative models are outlined. They evolve around the separateness of individuals, rights, and fair risk taking. It is claimed that a model that focuses on a fair procedure for risk decisions seems most fruitful to develop. Article II discusses the NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) conflict. The ethical premises behind the negative characterization of the NIMBY concept are investigated. It is argued that a collective weighing of risks and benefits ignores individuals’ rights not to be unfairly exposed to risks in siting scenarios. Article III presents a three-party model tool for ethical risk analysis. The focus in such analysis is a discussion of three parties that are involved in risk decisions: the risk-exposed, the beneficiary, and the decision-maker. Seven crucial ethical questions are discerned by combining these parties pairwise. Article IV discusses a model for procedural justice for risk decisions. Two theories of deliberative democracy are explored. The first focuses on a hypothetical contract, the second argues for the actual inclusion of affected parties. It is maintained that hypothetical reasoning should mainly serve as a guide concerning risk issues that affect people who cannot be included in the decision-making process. Otherwise an interactive dialogical reasoning is to be preferred. Article V explores the claim that there are no real, objective risks – only subjective descriptions of them. It is argued that even though every risk can be described in different ways, involve value judgements and emotions, the ideal of objectivity should not be abandoned. / QC 20100714

The purpose of this dissertation is to analyze land degradation from an economic perspective in order to assess its significance, understand its causes and design possible remedies. The physical extent and economic significance of land degradation is not well known, but it is indisputable that declining land productivity is a significant problem in many areas of the developing world. Past efforts to combat land degradation have shown a discouraging rate of failure. This work suggests that they have not gone to the root of the problem. The underlying forces of market and government failures are systematically discussed in the chapters which deal with the macroeconomic aspects of land degradation. This analytical framework is applied to a case study of the nation of Lesotho, Southern Africa. An attempt to estimate the economic significance of soil loss on crop land is made, and market and government failures relating to land use are reviewed. In the microeconomic analysis, a comparative review is made of the theory of cost-benefit analysis and its appliction in 20 empirical studies of land improvement projects. This review forms the basis for a new cost-beefit analysis of a specific project in southern Lesotho. The results have important implications for strategic choices in combating land degradation / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk.

Variations in fertility have caused a problematic situation in Sweden among other European countries. According to the Council of Europe we are facing an economic and demographic challenge, when the baby boomers of the 1940’s are retiring. Economists have for a long time studied the connection between economic factors and fertility, and several studies have found a correlation between business cycles and birth rates. This connection is again of current interest 2008, when a financial bubble bursts at the same time as a baby boom occurs. A similar event happened in 1992 when the latest baby boom occurred at the same time as a financial bubble.   This study investigates the correlation between real disposable income, employment among women, the price development of small houses, family policies and fertility during the period 1960-2008. The conclusions are reached by studies of earlier research and literature on economic theory of fertility. In the analysis theories and the results of earlier research are compared to empiric macro data taken from the Swedish Statistical Agency.   The conclusions are that a causal relation between economic factors and fertility exists, but it is not obvious; is fertility affected by variations in economic factors or the opposite? Employment affects both women’s income and their entitlement to parental benefit, which means that fertility and female employment are closely connected. Both financial bubbles and baby booms arise from the same psychological factors, which are rarely explained in economic models. When the Swedish parental benefit was introduced it had two effects; first it made the average age of women having their first baby increase, and secondly fertility became more closely connected to business cycles.

Swedish drug policies are among the most prohibitive in the world. Regardless of the ever expanding “narcotics criminal code” (narkotikastrafflagen), the drug use development in Sweden has followed international fluctuations in the narcotics market. A considerable increase in the number of debutants in using narcotics can be seen in the 1960s, followed by a reduction during the 1970s reaching a low in the mid 1980s. This is when the “zero-vision” on drugs is introduced in Sweden. Despite this vision and its accompanying increase in preventive measures, a remarkable increase in the number of users of narcotics has taken place from the 1990s up until the present. Swedish policy today puts lots of recourses into catching the users of narcotics even though historically and in comparison to other countries punishment and force have not been seen to be the strategies giving results. At the same time the Netherlands who is seen as an ultra-liberal country on the issue of narcotics, show better results than ultra-prohibitive Sweden, better results being fewer serious abusers per 1000 inhabitants. The fact that they have a higher frequency of people regularly using cannabis does not seem to result in a high number of abusers of serious narcotics. With this paper I wanted to raise the question whether or not the resources the Swedish state today use on the prevention of the use of drugs could be allocated in a different way. In my research I found that the reason for the development of an abuse of narcotics was not the mere existence of drugs themselves, but rather marginalization and social maladjustment. Therefore I think it is time to shift focus from the abuse of narcotics and to these reasons for the abuse. In my paper I introduce one way of distributing legal narcotics through specialized drugstores where you need a license to be allowed to buy the narcotics. This is to help control the use of narcotics, to prevent illegal distribution, and to obtain information on the use patterns and demand for narcotics. This system is also meant to be a warning system to help the Swedish government to offer help to those who need it. I have also done a qualitative cost- benefit analysis on the legalization of narcotics, listing all the possible costs and benefits this might have for society. My conclusion is that regardless of the economical profits that could be made trough legalizing narcotics, there are bigger issues that I have not been able to monetize, that need to be considered when making this decision. One example could be health effects and the value of those. Legalization is not necessarily the only road to take, but regardless of legalizing drugs or not, focus and resources should be shifted to prevent marginalization and social maladjustment and remove the reasons why people develop an abuse in the first place. / Den svenska narkotikapolitiken är en av de mest restriktiva i världen. Oberoende av den hela tiden expanderande narkotikastrafflagen så har drogutvecklingen i Sverige följt de internationala trenderna på narkotikamarknaden. En markant ökning i antalet narkotika- debutanter kan ses på 1960-talet, följt av en nedgång under 1970-talet. En botten nås på mitten av 1980-talet. Samtidigt introduceras ”nollvisionen” i den svenska narkotikapolitiken. Trots denna visionen och de tillhörande ökningarna i preventiva åtgärder, ser man en kraftig ökning i antalet narkotikaanvändare från mitten av 1990-talet och fram till i dag. Dagens svenska narkotikapolitik lägger mycket fokus på att få tag på narkotikaanvändarna även om straff och tvång inte har varit de strategier som givit resultat, sett från ett historiskt perspektiv och i jämförelse med andra länder. Samtidigt visar Nederländerna, som ses som ett ultraliberalt land i narkotikafrågan, ett bättre resultat än ultrarestriktiva Sverige. Med ett bättre resultat menas färre missbrukare per 1000 invånare. Det faktum att Nederländerna har en högre frekvens av folk som regelbundet använder cannabis verkar inte ge ett högre antal narkotikamissbrukare. Med denna uppsats vill jag ställa frågan om de resurser som svenska staten i dag lägger på att hindra narkotikaanvändandet kan allokeras på ett annat sätt. I min forskning fann jag att orsakerna till utvecklandet av ett missbruk var marginalisering och social missanpassning, inte själva existensen av narkotika. Av den anledningen menar jag att fokus måste flyttas från narkotikamissbruket och till anledningarna till narkotikamissbruket. I min uppsats presenterar jag ett specifikt sätt att distribuera narkotika, nämligen genom specialiserade narkotikaaffärer där man behöver en licens för att köpa narkotika. Detta för att kunna kontrollera narkotikaanvändandet, hindra olaglig distribution av droger, samt för att erhålla information om användningsmönster och efterfrågan på narkotika. Detta system är också menat att hjälpa svenska staten att erbjuda hjälp till dem som behöver det. Jag har även gjort en kvalitativ kostnads- nyttoanalys om legaliseringen av narkotika, i vilken jag räknar upp de kostnader och nyttor detta kan ha för samhället. Min konklusion är dock att oberoende av de ekonomiska fördelar en legalisering skulle kunna ge, så finns det många omständigheter som jag inte kunnat värdera och vilka bör tas med när man tar detta beslut. Exempel på sådana kan vara hälsoeffekter och hur man värderar dessa. Legalisering är inte nödvändigtvis ända sättet, men oavsett en legalisering eller inte borde fokus och resurser flyttas för att hindra marginalisering och social missanpassning, och eliminera orsakarna till att folk utvecklar ett missbruk i första hand.