Pancreatic beta-cells are responsible for secreting insulin into the circulation to maintain whole body glucose homeostasis. While pancreatic beta-cells have a large capacity to secrete insulin, their function progressively deteriorates during the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes as a result of both genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Obesity is the largest risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes and is associated with various conditions that can impair normal beta-cell function, including excess free fatty acids, inflammation and insulin resistance. Accumulating evidence in the literature suggests that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress contributes to the molecular mechanism of pancreatic beta-cell failure during the progression of type 2 diabetes. In this thesis, I have examined the role of the ER stress sensor ATF6-alpha and also the ER-resident chaperone GRP78 in pancreatic beta-cell homeostasis and function. Work presented in Chapter 2 examined the function of naturally occurring ATF6-alpha protein variants associated with type 2 diabetes. I also examined the role of endogenous ATF6-alpha in pancreatic beta-cells, which is described in Chapter 3. Results from these analyses suggest that the ATF6-alpha gene is not a type 2 diabetes susceptibility gene; however, ATF6-alpha protein expression is important to beta-cell function and survival. Finally, ER stress markers have been detected in pancreatic beta-cells and insulin sensitive tissues (such as adipose and liver), which promote beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance, respectively. In Chapter 4, I examined the contribution of ER stress in beta-cell dysfunction specifically by generating transgenic mice over-expressing GRP78. The mice were subsequently challenged by high fat diet to determine their susceptibility to developing symptoms of type 2 diabetes. Indeed increased chaperone capacity in pancreatic beta-cells protected against obesity-induced glucose intolerance and insulin resistance. Overall, these data support the hypothesis that ER stress contributes to beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes progression.

Type 2 diabetes is a disease characterized by the inability of pancreatic β-cells to secrete sufficient amounts of insulin to maintain normoglycemia. Increased levels of saturated fatty acids such as palmitate are believed to contribute to β-cell failure and the development of the disease. In the present thesis, mechanisms behind palmitate-induced β-cell apoptosis were explored. Palmitate augmented insulin secretion after short exposure to the fatty acid, but attenuated the secretory response after longer exposure. Elevated levels of palmitate increased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and induced apoptosis. When insulin secretion was inhibited by diazoxide, palmitate-induced ER stress and apoptosis were reduced. In comparison to palmitate, the mono-unsaturated fatty acid oleate increased neither ER stress nor apoptosis. Furthermore, shuttling of fatty acids into triglycerides and β-oxidation was favored in cells exposed to oleate compared to palmitate. When the levels of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), the enzyme responsible for conversion of saturated to mono-unsaturated fatty acids, were reduced, up-regulation of ER chaperones and components of the proteasome was observed. Cells with reduced levels of SCD1 showed increased sensitivity to palmitate, as exposure to the fatty acid increased levels of ER stress and apoptosis. Palmitate-induced apoptosis of the β-cell has been linked to alterations in sphingolipid metabolism. In cells with reduced levels of sphingosine kinase (SphK) 2, palmitate failed to induce apoptosis, and ER stress was reduced. Furthermore, SphK2 was required for the palmitate-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). In contrast, knockdown of SphK1 sensitized the cell to palmitate-induced apoptosis independently of ER stress. In summary, palmitate induces β-cell apoptosis, which is partly dependent on the induction of ER stress. The mechanisms investigated support the notion that increased protein load on the ER, low degree of triglyceride formation and β-oxidation, and perturbations in sphingolipid metabolism contribute to palmitate-induced apoptosis in insulin-producing β-cells.

Le diabète est une maladie chronique qui concerne plus de 380 millions de personnes dans le monde. Le diabète de type 1, qui représente 10 à 15% des cas, et le diabète de type 2, qui représente 85 à 90% des formes de diabète, ont pour caractéristique commune une diminution anatomique et/ou fonctionnelle de la masse de cellules bêta (MCB). L’estimation de la MCB des patients diabétiques présente un intérêt majeur pour l’amélioration du suivi de leur pathologie et une meilleure adaptation des traitements. Les tests métaboliques, qui sont actuellement les seuls outils disponibles pour évaluer la fonctionnalité des cellules β, présentent l’inconvénient d’être souvent lourds à mettre en place, et de ce fait, sont non utilisables en routine ou peu informatifs. L’imagerie, plus simple et plus sensible, représente une alternative attractive pour la mesure non invasive de la MCB d’autant plus qu’elle pourrait permettre à la fois une évaluation anatomique et fonctionnelle. Les outils actuellement en cours de développement visent principalement une imagerie anatomique de la MCB et s’orientent d’avantage vers le suivi longitudinal des patients que vers une quantification précise de la MCB dans un but purement diagnostique compte tenu des contraintes de sensibilité et de résolution nécessaires pour imager les cellules β. A l’heure actuelle, il n’existe pas encore d’outil idéal. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de mon travail de thèse était le développement de fragments d’anticorps ciblant ZnT8 pour l’imagerie fonctionnelle des cellules β pancréatiques en imagerie nucléaire. Le transporteur du zinc ZnT8 est une cible intéressante pour l’imagerie des cellules β dans la mesure où il est exprimé presque exclusivement par ces dernières. De plus, ZnT8 étant situé à la surface des vésicules de sécrétion et à la surface de la cellule lors de l’exocytose de l’insuline, son ciblage devrait donc permettre de rendre compte de la fonctionnalité des cellules β. Deux F(ab’)2, puis un Fab, radiomarqués ont d’abord été évalués in vivo chez la souris. Leurs poids moléculaire élevés ne permettaient pas une cinétique sanguine favorable et ralentissaient probablement leur passage à travers un endothélium vasculaire sain les empêchant ainsi d’accéder rapidement à leur cible. Des sdAbs, qui constituent une alternative intéressante aux F(ab’)2 et aux Fab compte tenu de leur poids moléculaire plus faible, ont ensuite été sélectionnés par phage display. Pour l’instant, seule une partie de ces sdAbs a pu être produite et le meilleur candidat n’a pas pu être suffisamment purifié pour permettre son radiomarquage. / Diabetes is a chronic disease that affects 380 million people worldwide. Anatomical and/or functional diminution of beta-cell mass (BCM) is a common feature of type 1 diabetes which represents 10 to 15% of cases and type 2 diabetes which accounts for 80 to 90% of cases. Patients’ BCM estimation is of great interest for patients’ follow-up improvement and therapy adjustment. Metabolic tests which are actually the only tools available for beta cells function evaluation have the disadvantage to be cumbersome processes inapplicable for clinical routine or uninformative. Imaging, which is easier and more sensitive, is an attractive alternative for non-invasive BCM measurement since it could allow anatomical and functional evaluation. Tools currently under development mainly focused on anatomical imaging and are directed toward longitudinal follow-up of patients rather than exact BCM quantification for a merely diagnostic purpose because of sensitivity and resolution constraints necessary for beta cells imaging. Currently, there is no existing ideal tool. In this context, my PhD research was to develop antibody fragments targeting ZnT8 for pancreatic beta cells functional nuclear imaging. Zinc transporter ZnT8 is an attractive target for beta cells imaging since it is expressed almost exclusively by these cells. Moreover, ZnT8 is located on insulin containing vesicles surface and on cell surface when insulin secretion is stimulated. Its targeting should reflect beta cells functionality. Two radiolabeled F(ab’)2 then a Fab were first tested in vivo in mice. Their high molecular weight did not allow a suitable blood kinetic and probably slowed down their passage across healthy vascular endothelium preventing them from reaching quickly their target. SdAbs, which are an attractive alternative to F(ab’)2 and Fab because of their low molecular weight, were then selected by phage display. At the moment, only a part of these sdAbs have been produced and the best candidate could not be purified enough to allow its radiolabeling.

Les hormones sécrétées par les cellules endocrines pancréatiques et intestinales participent à la régulation de l’homéostasie énergétique. Leur différenciation repose sur des programmes génétiques similaires contrôlés par le facteur de transcription Ngn3. Peu de choses sont connues sur les gènes activés par Ngn3 et leurs implications dans les mécanismes contrôlant la spécification et la maturation des cellules endocrines. Par conséquent, le transcriptome des progéniteurs endocrines a été déterminé dans l’équipe. Parmi les gènes fortement enrichis dans le lignage endocrine, j’ai caractérisé l’expression et la fonction de la kinase Pak3 et j’ai continué l’étude de la fonction pancréatique et intestinale du facteur de transcription Rfx6. J’ai montré que Pak3 est exprimé dans le lignage endocrine pendant le développement et chez l’adulte. Avec des expériences de perte de fonction, j’ai montré que ce gène inhibe la prolifération des progéniteurs endocrines et des cellules bêta durant l’embryogénèse. De plus, une étude métabolique a montré que les souris mutantes pour Pak3 sont intolérantes au glucose. En parallèle, en utilisant une souris conditionnelle pour Rfx6, j’ai montré que Rfx6 est nécessaire en aval de Ngn3 pour la différenciation des cellules endocrines pancréatiques et intestinales. Finalement, des expériences dans les souris adultes suggèrent que Rfx6 est nécessaire pour maintenir les cellules bêta, renouveler les cellules entéroendocrines et absorber les lipides dans l’intestin. En conclusion, ces études révèlent deux nouveaux gènes clés dans la régulation de la différenciation des cellules endocrines et de l’homéostasie énergétique dans le pancréas et l’intestin. / Pancreatic and intestinal endocrine cells, and their secreted hormones, contribute to the regulation of energy homeostasis. Their differentiation relies on similar genetic programs controlled by the proendocrine transcription factor Ngn3. However, our knowledge of the endocrinogenic programs implemented by Ngn3 is still fragmentary. Therefore, the transcriptome of endocrine progenitors has been determined in the lab. Among the genes which showed a strong enrichment in the endocrine lineage, I studied the expression and function of Pak3, a serine/threonine kinase and further pursued the dissection of the function of the transcription factor Rfx6 in the pancreas and the intestine. I showed that Pak3 is expressed throughout pancreas development and maintained in adult islets. Using ex vivo loss of function experiments and in vivo characterisation of the Pak3-deficient mice, I identified Pak3 as an inhibitor of islet progenitors and beta-cell proliferation in the embryonic mouse pancreas. Furthermore, we performed metabolic studies which revealed that Pak3-deficient micehave an impaired glucose homeostasis, especially under challenging high fat diet. In parallel, using a conditional knockout mouse for Rfx6, we showed that Rfx6 is necessary downstream of Ngn3 for endocrine cell differentiation in the pancreas as well as in the intestine. Finally, additional experiments in adult mice suggest that Rfx6 is necessary to maintain pancreatic beta-cells, enteroendocrine cell turnover and intestinal lipid absorption. In conclusion, these studies revealed two novel key players in the regulation of endocrine cell differentiation and energy homeostasis in the pancreas and the intestine.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A exposição materna durante o período gestacional a uma dieta restrita em proteínas (LP) prejudica o desenvolvimento do pâncreas endócrino em sua prole e aumenta a susceptibilidade à hipertensão, diabetes e obesidade na vida adulta. Há evidências de que esse fenômeno pode persistir em gerações subsequentes. Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito da restrição proteica sobre o metabolismo da glicose e morfometria pancreática na prole F3 de camundongos ao nascimento e ao desmame. Para tanto, fêmeas virgens de camundongos Suíços (F0) foram acasaladas e receberam dieta normo-proteica (19% de proteína - NP) ou uma dieta isocalórica restrita em proteínas (5% de proteína - LP) durante toda a gravidez. Durante a lactação e o restante do experimento, todos os grupos receberam a dieta NP. Os filhotes machos foram nomeados F1 (NP1 e LP1). As fêmeas F1 e F2 foram acasaladas para produzir F2 e F3 (NP2, LP2, NP3 e LP3), respectivamente. Semanalmente, os filhotes foram pesados e calculada a taxa de crescimento alométrico (log [massa corporal] = log a + log b [idade]). Os animais foram sacrificados nos dias 1 e 21 de idade, a glicemia foi determinada e o pâncreas retirado, pesado e analisado por estereologia e imunofluorescência; a insulina foi mensurada aos 21 dias. Como resultados, os filhotes restritos na primeira geração (LP1) foram menores ao nascer, mas apresentaram um crescimento acelerado nos primeiros sete dias de vida, mostrando catch-up com os controles; a prole LP2 demonstrou a maior massa corporal ao nascimento e tiveram uma taxa de crescimento mais lenta durante a lactação; não houve diferença na massa corporal e na taxa de crescimento na geração F3. A massa de pâncreas foi diminuída em LP1-LP3 ao nascimento, contudo foi aumentada em LP2 ao desmame. A densidade de volume e o diâmetro das ilhotas foram menores em todos os grupos restritos no dia 1 e 21, somente LP1 teve o menor número de ilhotas. Ao nascer, a massa de células beta foi menor em LP1-LP3 e permaneceu baixa durante a lactação. No dia 1 e 21, os filhotes foram normoglicêmicos, entretanto foram hipoinsulinêmicos ao desmame. Portanto, a restrição de proteínas em camundongos durante a gestação produz alterações morfológicas nas ilhotas pancreáticas, sugerindo que a homeostase da glicose foi mantida por um aumento da sensibilidade à insulina durante os primeiros estágios de vida na prole ao longo de três gerações consecutivas. / Exposure of pregnant mice to a low-protein (LP) diet impairs endocrine pancreas development in their offspring and increases susceptibility to hypertension, diabetes and obesity in adulthood. There is evidence that this phenomenon may persist in subsequent generations. We sought to evaluate the effect of protein restriction on glucose metabolism and pancreatic morphometry in the F3 offspring of mice at birth and weaning. Virgin female Swiss mice (F0) were mated and received normal protein diet (19% protein - NP) or an isocaloric low protein diet (5% protein - LP) throughout pregnancy. Lactation and the rest of the experimental groups received NP diet. The male pups were named F1 (NP1 and LP1). F1 and F2 females were mated to produce F2 and F3 (NP2, LP2, NP3 and LP3). Weekly, pups were weighted and calculated the growth rate by allometry (log [body mass] = log a + b log [age]). The mice were sacrificed on days 1 and 21 of age, blood glucose was measured and the pancreas removed, weighed and analyzed by stereology and immunofluorescence, insulin was measured at 21 days. LP pups in the first generation (LP1) were smaller at birth, but had an accelerated growth and within 7 days catch-up growth with controls; LP2 offspring had higher body mass at birth and had a slower growth rate within 21 days; but there was no difference in body mass and growth rate in the F3 generation. The pancreatic mass decreased in LP1 through LP3 at birth but increased in LP2 at weaning. The islet volume density and diameter were smaller in all restricted groups at day 1 and 21, and LP1 had the lowest islet number; at birth, beta cell mass was smaller in LP1 through LP3 and remained low throughout suckling. At day 1 and 21, pups were normoglycemic, but were hypoinsulinemic at weaning. Thus, protein restriction in mice during pregnancy produces morphologic changes in pancreatic islets, suggesting that glucose homeostasis is maintained by an increased sensitivity to insulin during the early stages of life in offspring over three consecutive generations.

O transplante de ilhotas pancreáticas constitui uma alternativa atraente para o tratamento de diabetes tipo 1 (DM1), contudo, é limitado devido à escassez de doadores de órgãos. O papel da prolactina humana recombinante (rhPRL), que apresenta efeitos benéficos em células-beta, e seu mecanismo de ação foram investigados neste estudo. O número de células apoptóticas diminui significativamente na presença de rhPRL. Essa citoproteção envolveu diminuição da razão BCL2/BAX e inibição de caspase-8, -9 e -3. Este estudo revelou, pela primeira vez, evidência direta do efeito protetor de lactogênios contra apoptose de células-beta humanas. Levando em consideração a relação conhecida entre citocinas e DM1 e observações recentes sugerindo o papel da autofagia no desenvolvimento e prevenção do DM1, foi investigada a conexão entre citocinas (IL-1β, TNFα e IFN-γ) e autofagia em células-beta. O co-tratamento com citocinas e rapamicina, um indutor de autofagia via inibição de mTOR, não aumentou os níveis de apoptose em células INS-1E. Contudo, exposição a citocinas levou ao aumento nos níveis de autofagossomos e na relação LC3-II/LC3-I, do mesmo modo que o tratamento com rapamicina. O tratamento com citocinas também levou à diminuição dos níveis de mTOR e 4E-BP1 fosforilados. Foi demonstrada aqui, pela primeira vez, uma relação direta entre o tratamento com citocinas e a indução de autofagia em células-beta. Recentemente, surgiram novas evidências mostrando ligação entre a morte de células-beta induzida por citocinas e indução de estresse de retículo endoplasmático. Em nosso modelo, foram observados níveis diminuídos de p-mTOR e aumento da formação de autofagossomos após o tratamento com indutores de estresse de retículo. Este estudo reforça também, resultados prévios sobre a hipótese da função de indutores de estresse de retículo em promover a autofagia. Além disso, o tratamento com rhPRL aumentou os níveis de p-mTOR e levou à diminuição na formação de autofagossomos após exposição a citocinas em células-beta. Estes resultados são relevantes para a caracterização mais aprofundada das funções dos lactogênios nessas células. Sabendo-se da necessidade de células-beta humanas para estudos detalhados em células-beta, nosso grupo gerou linhagens celulares derivadas de insulinomas humanos que secretam hormônios e expressam marcadores com o mesmo padrão de seu tecido original. Estas linhagens foram caracterizadas comparando-as com culturas primárias de células-beta através de eletroforese bidimensional acoplada a espectrometria de massa. Cerca de 1.800 spots foram detectados, sendo que menos de 1% apresentou expressão diferencial. As proteínas superexpressas em ilhotas, como Caldesmon, estão envolvidas em organização do citoesqueleto, influenciando a secreção hormonal. Contrariamente, quase todas as proteínas superexpressas nas células de insulinoma, como MAGE-A2, foram descritas aqui pela primeira vez, podendo estar relacionadas à sobrevivência celular e resistência à quimioterapia. Estes resultados mostram, pela primeira vez, mudanças na expressão de proteínas relacionadas ao fenótipo alterado dos insulinomas, direcionando a pesquisa ao estabelecimento de células-beta humanas bioengenheiradas e ao desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas para insulinomas. Coletivamente, os dados obtidos neste estudo estendem o conhecimento molecular envolvido na citoproteção induzida por rhPRL e transformação maligna de células-beta pancreáticas, contribuindo para futuras aplicações na compreensão e no tratamento do DM1 / Transplantation of pancreatic islets constitutes an alternative for type 1 diabetes (DM1); however, it is limited by the shortage of organ donors. Here, we investigated the role of recombinant human prolactin (rhPRL), shown to have beneficial effects in beta-cells, and its mechanisms of action. Apoptotic beta-cells were decreased in the presence of rhPRL, with cytoprotection involving an increase of BCL2/BAX ratio and inhibition of caspase-8, -9 and -3. This study provides new direct evidence for a protective effect of lactogens in human beta-cell apoptosis. Taking into account the known relationship between cytokines and DM1 and recent observations suggesting a role for autophagy in the development and prevention of DM1, we investigated the connection between cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α and IFN-γ) and autophagy in beta-cells. Co-treatment with cytokines and rapamycin, an inducer of autophagy through inhibition of mTOR, did not increase the apoptosis levels in INS-1E cells. However, exposure to cytokines increased the levels of autophagosome formation and LC3-II/LC3-I ratio. Treatment with cytokines also led to decreased levels of phosphorylated mTOR and 4E-BP1. We demonstrated for the first time, a direct relationship between cytokines treatment and induction of autophagy in beta-cells. Lately, new evidence point to a connection between cytokine-induced beta-cell death and endoplasmic reticulum stress. In our model, we observed that decreased levels of p-mTOR and increased autophagosome formation also ensued after treatment with endoplasmic reticulum stressors. This study also supports the previous hypothesis on the function of ER stressors in inducing autophagy. Furthermore, rhPRL treatment increased the levels of p-mTOR and decreased autophagosome formation after exposure to cytokines in beta-cells. These findings are also relevant for further characterization of lactogens functions in these cells. Considering the demand for human cells for further beta-cells studies, our group generated cell lines derived from human insulinomas which secrete hormones and express markers with the same pattern displayed by their original tissue. We set out to further characterize these lineages by comparing them to primary beta-cells using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry. An average of 1,800 spots was detected with less than 1% exhibiting differential expression. Proteins upregulated in islets, such as Caldesmon, are involved in cytoskeletal organization thus influencing hormone secretion. In contrast, almost all proteins upregulated in insulinoma cells, such as MAGE-A2, first described here, could be related to cell survival and resistance to chemotherapy. Our results provide, for the first time, a molecular snapshot of the changes in expression of proteins correlated with the altered phenotype of insulinomas, prompting research towards the establishment of bioengineered human beta-cells, and the development of new therapeutic strategies for insulinomas. Collectively, the data obtained in this study extend the molecular knowledge involved in rhPRL-induced cytoprotection and malignant transformation of pancreatic beta-cells, contributing to future applications for understanding and treatment of DM1

Um dos objetivos no tratamento de Diabetes mellitus é aumentar a função, proliferação e sobrevivência de células beta pancreáticas, pois o transplante de ilhotas pancreáticas é severamente limitado pela escassez de doadores de órgãos. Nós mostramos que prolactina recombinante humana (rhPRL) apresenta efeitos benéficos em células beta, inibindo a apoptose. Recentemente reportamos o aumento dos níveis de expressão da proteína antiapoptótica HSP27/25, regulada por rhPRL em ilhotas humanas. Nosso objetivo é explorar o papel de HSP27/25 na citoproteção induzida por prolactina em células beta. Métodos: Células MIN6 parentais e silenciadas para HSP25 foram privadas de soro por 24h e cultivadas na presença ou ausência de rhPRL (300ng/mL). Posteriormente foram tratadas na presença ou ausência de uma combinação de citocinas (TNF-&#945;, INF-&#947 e IL-1&#946;) por diferentes períodos de tempo. A apoptose foi avaliada usando-se análise por citometria de fluxo. Os níveis de expressão gênica de HSP27/25 e membros da família BCL-2, da expressão proteica de membros desta mesma família, além de Caspase-9, Smac-Diablo HSP27/25, HSTF1, pP38 e pSTAT1 foram analisados por Westen blot. Ainda, foram avaliadas a atividade de Caspase-8 e -3, por ensaios fluorimétricos. Após o tratamento com rhPRL e citocinas, a proporção de núcleos fragmentados aumentou em células silenciadas para HSP25 (p<0,05), quando comparadas com células controles. A inibição da atividade de Caspase-3 e -8, tanto quanto os níveis de expressão proteica de caspase- 9, por rhPRL e o aumento da razão de expressão Bcl-2/Bax e BclxL/Bax foram revertidos em células silenciadas (p<0,05). Além disso, a cinética dos níveis de expressão de HSP27/25 e HSTF1 foram estudadas em culturas de ilhotas pancreáticas humanas, mostrando que enquanto HSTF1 apresenta um aumento significativo (p<0,01) nos níveis de expressão proteica após 10min de tratamento com rhPRL, HSP27 alcançou seu nível máximo após 2h do tratamento hormonal. Adicionalmente, foi detectado um aumento significante (p<0,05) nos níveis de fosforilação de STAT1 e de p38, após 10min, atingindo o pico de expressão após 30min (p<0,01) do tratamento com rhPRL. Estes estudos demonstram o papel chave de HSP27/25 sobre os efeitos citoprotetores induzidos por rhPRL, desde que a ausência desta proteína aboliu completamente os efeitos benéficos induzidos por PRL sobre a morte de células beta. Ainda, nós fornecemos pela primeira vez, evidências da corregulação de HSP27 e HSTF1 induzidas por rhPRL em células humanas pancreáticas, que pode estar sendo mediada pela ativação de STAT1 e p38. Coletivamente, nossos resultados podem conduzir para a atenuação da morte de células beta por meio da regulação de uma via de proteção endógena, a qual é independente da modulação do sistema imunológico. / One of the goals in Diabetes mellitus treatment is to enhance pancreatic &#946;-cell function, proliferation and survival since transplantation of pancreatic islets is severely limited by shortage of organ donors. We have shown that recombinant human prolactin (rhPRL) inhibits beta-cell apoptosis. We have recently reported PRL-induced up-regulation of the anti-apoptotic HSP25/27 in human islets. Since the function of HSP25/27 in beta-cells has not been directly studied, we set out to explore the role of HSP25/27 in prolactin-induced beta-cell cytoprotection. Methods: Parental and HSP25 knocked-down Min6 cells were serumstarved for 24h and then cultured in the presence or in the absence of rhPRL (300ng/mL) for different time periods. Apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometry analysis. Levels of Bcl-2 gene family members, caspase-9, Bcl-2, BclxL, Bax, Smac-Diablo, HSP27/25, HSTF1, pStat- 1,pP38 were studied by western blot. Caspase-3 and -8 activity, were evaluated by fluorimetric assays. Upon cytokines and rhPRL treatment, the proportion of fragmented nuclei was increased in HSP25 silenced cells (p<0.05) when compared to control cells. The inhibition of cytokine-induced capase-3 and -8 activity as well as Bcl-2/Bax and BclxL/Bax ratios and caspase-9 protein levels mediated by rhPRL in wild type cells was reverted in knocked-down cells (p<0.05). Moreover, the kinetics of HSP 25/27 and HSTF1 expression levels studied in primary cultures of human pancreatic islets showed that while HSTF1 presented a significant increase (p<0.01) in protein expression level after 10 min of rhPRL treatment, HSP27 reached its maximum expression level upon 2h of hormonal treatment. Additionally, a significant (p<0.05) increase in both P38 and STAT1 phosphorylation levels were detected after 10min of rhPRL treatment reaching the highest levels upon 30 min (p<0.001) of hormonal treatment. Therefore, we demonstrated a key role for HSP25/27 in rhPRL-induced cytoprotective effects, since the lack of this protein completely abolished the beneficial effects induced by PRL on beta-cell death. Moreover, we provided for the first time, evidence for the co-regulation of HSP27 and HSTF1 induced by rhPRL in human pancreatic cells which could be mediated by activated STAT1 and P38. Collectively, our results could lead to the mitigation of beta-cell death through the up-regulation of an endogenous protective pathway which is independent on the modulation of the immune system.

Le diabètes mellites de type 2 (T2DM) est caractérisé par une hyperglycémie provenant d’une dérégulation de la sécrétion d’insuline combinée avec une altération de l’action de l’insuline. CaMK1D est un nouveau gène identifié, dont le rôle reste à explorer. Dans l’étude exposée ici, j’ai montré que CaMK1D a un effet majeur sur la régulation du glucose. J’ai observé une réduction exceptionnelle des taux de glucose sanguins à jeun, ce qui entraine une amélioration globale de la tolérance au glucose. Les souris mutantes montrent une augmentation conséquente dans les niveaux sanguins d’insuline. Les souris invalidées pour CaMK1D présentent des ilots pancréatiques de taille plus importante due à une hypertrophie des cellules béta. De plus, les souris mutantes sont protégées contre la stéatose hépatique. Dans l’ensemble, mon travail met en évidence le nouveau rôle clé de CaMK1D chez les cellules béta et apporte plus de compréhension quant à son rôle lors du développement du T2DM. / Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion in combination with impaired insulin action. CaMK1D represents one potential candidate gene, the in vivo function remained elusive. In this work, I have found that CaMK1D plays a central role in blood glucose regulation. Pancreas-specific CaMK1D knockout mice display dramatically reduced fasting blood glucose levels leading to an overall improved glucose tolerance. CaMK1D knockout mice show markedly higher ad libitum and fasting insulin levels. Interestingly, pancreas-specific CaMK1D knockout mice display islet hyperplasia caused by beta-cell hypertrophy. Furthermore, conditional knockout mice are protected against high-fat feeding-induced hepatic steatosis. Overall, my work establishes an essential role of CaMK1D in pancreatic beta-cells and provides further understanding about its role in the development of T2DM.

Le diabète de type 2 est aujourd'hui un réel problème de santé publique mondial. Il résulte d'un défaut de masse et/ou de fonction des cellules bêta pancréatiques. L'identification et la compréhension des mécanismes à l'origine de ces défauts permettrait de développer des stratégies pour restaurer la masse fonctionnelle de cellules bêta. Les hormones glucocorticoïdes (GC), hormones de stress et d'adaptation métaboliques, sont capables d'inhiber la sécrétion d'insuline mais leur mode d'action n'est pas encore entièrement compris. Récemment, la sérotonine, neurotransmetteur présent dans les cellules bêta, a été décrite comme étant à l'origine de l'augmentation de la masse bêta lors de la gestation et d'une modulation de la sécrétion d'insuline chez la souris. Dans ce contexte, nous avons voulu définir si les GC pouvaient moduler le système sérotonine des cellules bêta. Nous nous sommes alors intéressés aux enzymes de synthèse de la sérotonine Tph1 et Tph2. Nous avons pu montrer que l'expression des enzymes Tph1 et Tph2 était inhibée par les GC entrainant une diminution de la synthèse de la sérotonine. Ensuite nous avons confirmé que l'expression de Tph1 et 2 était stimulée par la prolactine mais aussi montré pour la première fois que ces enzymes étaient stimulées par l'exenatide-4, un analogue de GLP-1. Dans ces deux situations stimulantes, nous retrouvons un effet contre-régulateur des GC. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de la sérotonine sur la fonction des cellules bêta. Nous avons pu mettre en évidence que la sérotonine est capable d'inhiber la sécrétion d'insuline par altération du flux calcique dans la cellule bêta pancréatique. En conclusion, nos résultats montrent que, au sein de la cellule bêta, le système sérotonine est une des cibles des GC, suggérant que la réduction de sérotonine puisse être un relais des effets des GC sur les cellules bêta. / Type 2 diabetes is now a real global public health problem. It results from a defect of mass and / or function of pancreatic beta cells. The identification and understanding of the mechanisms underlying these defects would help develop strategies to restore the functional beta cell mass. Glucocorticoid hormones (GC), hormones of stress and metabolic adaptation, can inhibit insulin secretion but their mode of action is not yet fully understood. Recently, the neurotransmitter serotonin present in the beta cells has been described as involved in the increase in beta-cell mass during gestation and a modulation of the insulin secretion in mice. In this context, we wanted to determine whether GC could modulate the serotonin system of beta cells. We focused on the enzymes required for serotonin synthesis Tph1 and 2. We could show that the expression of Tph1 and Tph2 1 and Tph2 enzyme was inhibited by GC causing a decrease in serotonin synthesis. We then confirmed the expression of Tph1 and 2 was stimulated by prolactin but also showed for the first time that these enzymes were stimulated by exenatide-4, a GLP-1. In these two stimulating situations, we found that GC exerts a counter-regulatory effect. Finally, we studied the role of serotonin on beta cell function. We were able to show that serotonin can inhibit the secretion of insulin by altering the calcium flux in the pancreatic beta cell. In conclusion, our results show that, within the beta cell, the serotonin system is one of GC target, suggesting that serotonin reduction can be a relay of the effects of GC on beta cells.

GH and the insulin like growth factor type I (IGF-I) have synergistic functions on protein synthesis and muscle mass. In adipose tissue, GH stimulates lipolysis and lipid oxidation, while IGF-I stimulates the differentiation of pre adipocytes to adipocytes. In glucose metabolism , GH and IGF-I have antagonist opposite actions, been GH antagonist and IGF-I synergetic to insulin sensitivity (IS). Heterozygous adults individuals for the mutation c.104 = 1G> A in the GH releasing hormone receptor gene (MUT/N), present a mild reduction of GH and normal IGF-I levels accompanied by a significant reduction in lean body mass (Kg), with a tendancy of reduction in fat mass (kg), compared to homozygous normal adults individuals (N/N). IS and the beta cell function are unknown in individuals MUT/ N. To evaluate them, it was performed the oral glucose tolerance test with administration of 75g of glucose and serum glucose and insulin were measured at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes in 25 individual MUT/ N (12 M / 13 F, 40.08 ± 10.87 years) and 25 N/N (14 M / F 11; 39.96 ± 12.49 years). There was no difference in height, nevertheless weight, BMI, waist and hip circunferences were lower in individuals MUT/N. IS was assessed by HOMAir, where lower values indicate a greater IS and the QUICKI, OGIS 2 and OGIS 3, where higher values indicate higher SI. The beta cell function was assessed by HOMA-beta, insulinogenic index and area under the curve of insulin / glucose ratio (ASC I/G). ANOVA showed no difference between glucose and insulin responses between the groups. The areas under the curve of glucose and insulin were also similar between the number of patients with pre diabetes and diabetes. No changes were observed in the HOMAir, QUICKI, OGIS 2 and OGIS 3, HOMA beta, insulinogenic index and ASC I/G between the two groups. In conclusion, insulin sensitivity and beta cell function in MUT/N individuals are similar to MUT/N individuals. / GH e o fator de crescimento semelhante à insulina tipo I (IGF-I) apresentam funções sinérgicas sobre a síntese protéica e massa muscular. No tecido adiposo, o GH estimula a lipólise e oxidação lípidica, enquanto o IGF-I estimula a diferenciação dos pré adipócitos em adipócitos. No metabolismo glicídico, GH e IGF-I têm ações opostas, sendo o GH antagônico e o IGF-I sinérgico à sensibilidade insulínica (SI). Indivíduos heterozigóticos adultos para a mutação c.104=1G>A gene do receptor do hormônio liberador do GH (MUT/N) no, apresentam discreta redução do GH e níveis normais de IGF-I acompanhada de redução significativa da massa magra (Kg), com tendência à redução da massa gorda (Kg), em relação aos indivíduos homozigóticos normais (N/N). A SI e a função das células beta são desconhecidas nos indivíduos MUT/N. Para avaliá-las, foi realizado o teste de tolerância oral à glicose com administração de 75g de glicose e dosagens de glicose e insulina nos tempos 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 e 180 minutos em 25 indivíduos MUT/N (12 M/ 13 F; 40,08 ± 10,87 anos) e 25 N/N (14 M/ 11 F; 39,96 ± 12,49 anos). Não houve diferença na altura, contudo o peso, o IMC, a cintura e o quadril foram menores nos indivíduos MUT/N. A sensibilidade à insulina (SI) foi avaliada pelo HOMAir, onde menores valores, indicam maior SI e pelos QUICKI, OGIS 2 e OGIS 3, onde maiores valores, indicam maior SI. A função da célula beta foi avaliada pelo HOMA-beta, índice insulinogênico e área sob a curva da razão insulina/ glicose (ASC I/G). ANOVA indicou que não houve diferença entre as respostas glicêmica e insulinêmica entre os grupos. As áreas sob a curva de glicose e insulina foram semelhantes como também entre o número de pacientes com pré diabetes e diabetes. Não foram verificadas variações no HOMAir, QUICK, OGIS 2 e OGIS 3, HOMA beta, índice insulinogênico e ASC I/G entre os dois grupos. Em conclusão, a sensibilidade insulínica e a função de célula beta nos indivíduos MUT/N são semelhantes a dos indivíduos N/N.