A Fixação Biológica de Nitrogênio (FBN), processo no qual o nitrogênio atmosférico é convertido à amonia, é muito bem estabelecida entre bactérias diazotróficas coletivamente chamadas de rizóbios e espécies leguminosas. No Brasil, esse tipo de associação (simbiótica) supre totalmente a necessidade de nitrogênio na cultura da soja. Para que a infecção seja efetiva e possa resultar na formação de um nódulo capaz de sustentar o processo de FBN conduzido pelo bacterioide, o rizóbio necessita, previamente, reconhecer e responder à presença das raízes da planta compatível. As associações simbióticas entre rizóbios e plantas leguminosas são altamente específicas, de forma que cada espécie, ou até mesmo estirpe de rizóbio, possui uma gama definida de plantas às quais está apto a se associar, e vice-versa. A principal função dos produtos dos genes de nodulação (nod) é garantir a troca de sinais entre os dois organismos envolvidos na relação simbiótica, onde os produtos dos genes nod regulatórios atuam no controle da expressão de genes nod estruturais. A expressão de genes nod estruturais, via de regra, não ocorre de forma autônoma nos micro-organismos simbiontes do gênero Bradyrhizobium, requerendo assim a presença de moléculas sinalizadoras secretadas pelas raízes das plantas (predominantemente flavonoides) e ativadores transcricionais do tipo-LysR – as proteínas NodD regulatórias. Neste contexto, motivos específicos das proteínas NodD ligam-se a sequências conservadas na região promotora do operon nod, conhecidas como nod boxes, mediando a transcrição dos genes nod. Aparentemente, este sistema regulatório envolvendo as proteínas NodD está presente na maioria das estirpes de Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium e Azorhizobium, sugerindo um mecanismo geral de controle da nodulação. Em B. diazoefficiens, duas proteínas NodD foram identificadas, com funções e padrões de expressão distintos: NodD1, ativador da transcrição dos genes nod responsivo aos flavonoides liberados pelas raízes das plantas, e NodD2, com ação contrária, atuando como repressor da transcrição desses genes. Enquanto existe uma quantidade relativamente grande de conhecimento em relação à genética e aos mecanismos moleculares que regulam a expressão dos genes envolvidos na nodulação de B. diazoefficiens, incluindo a sequência completa de seu genoma, informações sobre a genética de B. elkanii ainda são relativamente escassas, mesmo que existam alguns dados genômicos disponíveis. Neste trabalho, sequências genômicas de seis linhagens de B. elkanii foram comparadas com o genoma da linhagem de referência B. diazoefficiens USDA 110 com o objetivo de elucidar mecanismos envolvidos na expressão dos genes nod, especialmente aqueles relacionados ao operon e ao regulon nod. Os resultados obtidos permitiram acrescentar aspectos importantes no modelo de regulação apresentado para a linhagem de referência e que pode ser estendido para linhagens de B. elkanii. / The Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF), process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia, is well established among diazotrophs collectively called rhizobia and legume species. In Brazil, this type of symbiotic association fully meets the need for nitrogen in soybean crop. To infection be effective and result in the formation of a nodule able to sustain the BNF process lead by the bacterioid, the rhizobia need previously to recognize and respond to the presence of the root of a compatible plant. The symbiotic associations between rhizobia and leguminous plants are highly specific, so that each species or even strain of rhizobia has a defined range of plants to which it is able to associate, and vice-versa. The main function of the products of nodulation (nod) genes is to guarantee the exchange of signals between the two organisms involved in the symbiotic relationship, where the products of regulatory nod genes act to control the expression of structural nod genes. The expression of structural nod genes usually does not occur independently in the symbiotic microorganisms of the Bradyrhizobium genus, thus requiring the presence of signalling molecules secreted by plant roots (predominantly flavonoids) and transcriptional activators – the LysR-type regulatory NodD proteins. In this context, NodD proteins bind to specific motifs of conserved sequences in the promoter region of the nod operon, known as nod boxes, mediating transcription of the nod genes. Apparently, this regulatory system involving NodD proteins is present in most strains of Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium, suggesting a general mechanism of nodulation control. In B. diazoefficiens two NodD proteins were identified with distinct functions and expression patterns: NodD1, a flavonoid responsive transcriptional activator of nod genes, and NodD2 with counteraction, acting as a transcriptional repressor of these genes. While there is a relatively large amount of knowledge about the genetics and molecular mechanisms that regulate the expression of genes involved in B. diazoefficiens nodulation, including the complete sequence of its genome, genetic information concerning B. elkanii is still relatively sparse, even if there are some available genomic data. In this study, genomic sequences of six strains of B. elkanii were compared with the genome of the reference strain B. diazoefficiens USDA 110 in order to elucidate mechanisms involved in the expression of nod genes, especially those related to the nod operon and the nod regulon. The results obtained allowed to add important aspects in the regulatory model presented to the reference strain and that could be extended to strains of B. elkanii.

A utilização de inoculantes em culturas de leguminosas é uma prática conhecida e empregada há longo tempo e o substrato mais utilizado até o momento tem sido a turfa. Diversos tipos de formulações inoculantes que existem no mercado visam oferecer uma alternativa ao emprego da turfa, porém muitas apresentam baixa capacidade para manter a sobrevivência e eficiência dos rizóbios. Este trabalho avaliou a utilização de catorze misturas diferentes de polímeros naturais e/ou sintéticos como suportes para inoculantes, visando a produção de inoculantes comerciais para soja, e a capacidade de manter a sobrevivência e preservar as características de infectividade e de efetividade das estirpes SEMIA 587 de Bradyrhizobium elkanii e SEMIA 5079 de Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Avaliou-se a sobrevivência dos rizóbios nas formulações armazenadas, a capacidade de aderência das formulações em sementes, a sobrevivência dos rizóbios em sementes a 40 ºC e a eficiência dos inoculantes em plantas de soja, cultivadas em vasos com solo, submetidas a estresse hídrico e térmico. Observou-se que as misturas contendo goma xantana, jataí e guar, tanto nas formulações em gel como líquidas, podem ser usadas como veículo para inoculantes proporcionando maior proteção aos rizóbios contra as condições de dessecação e temperatura. Todos os inoculantes mantiveram a sobrevivência da população de rizóbios durante um ano de armazenamento. Os rizóbios das formulações G5, L1 e L7, que continham goma arábica, foram afetados pelo estresse hídrico e pelas temperaturas elevadas, reduzindo o número de nódulos formados. Dentre as formulações líquidas, as que continham xantana e glicerol (L2) e com adição de polivinilpirrolidona (L5) e a formulação que continha xantana, carboximetilcelulose e polivinilpirrolidona (L6), foram as mais promissoras para a formulação de inoculantes para soja.

Ureases (EC 3.5.1.5.) catalisam a hidrólise de ureia em NH3 e CO2, sendo sintetizadas por plantas, fungos e bactérias. No solo, a urease é encontrada em microrganismos, raízes de plantas e como uma enzima extracelular ligada a compostos orgânicos e inorgânicos. Em plantas e fungos, as ureases consistem em trímeros ou hexâmeros formados por uma subunidade de 90 kDa, enquanto que enzimas bacterianas são complexos com duas ou três subunidades. A inserção de dois átomos de níquel no sítio ativo requer pelo menos três proteínas acessórias, UreD, UreF e UreG em bactérias, ou seus ortólogos em plantas e fungos. Bradyrhizobium japonicum é uma bactéria do solo que forma nódulos fixadores de nitrogênio em plantas de soja. Esse microrganismo produz uma urease, e seu papel na sinalização, tanto para a planta de soja quanto para outros organismos no complexo ambiente da rizosfera, ainda não foi investigado. Desta forma, o presente estudo objetivou purificar e caracterizar a urease de B. japonicum (BJU), bem como avaliar o papel desta enzima, tanto a de origem vegetal quanto a de origem bacteriana, no processo de nodulação da soja. A capacidade da enzima em induzir exocitose/secreção foi avaliada no teste de agregação plaquetária, utilizando-se plasma rico em plaquetas obtido de sangue de coelho e monitorando-se a agregação por turbidimetria. Observamos que a urease de B. japonicum possui a propriedade de agregar plaquetas, implicando em uma provável atividade indutora de exocitose. Ensaios de quimiotaxia demonstraram a atração exercida pela urease ubíqua recombinante de soja sobre células de B. japonicum. Para os ensaios de nodulação, sementes pré-germinadas de soja tiposelvagem (Williams 82) e de mutantes deficientes na proteína urease (eu1-sun/eu4) foram expostas a culturas de B. japonicum USDA110 (tipo selvagem), B. japonicum ΔureG (ausência de atividade ureásica) ou B. japonicum ΔureABC (ausência de urease), e semeadas em vasos de Leonard modificados. Os nódulos foram contados e pesados em diferentes tempos após a inoculação. Além disso, foi determinado o conteúdo de leghemoglobina destes nódulos e o conteúdo de nitrogênio na parte aérea das plantas, como uma maneira de estimar a eficiência da fixação biológica de nitrogênio. Plantas deficientes em urease formam nódulos maiores e em menor número que as selvagens, independente do fenótipo da bactéria. O pico de produção de leghemoglobina em plantas tipo-selvagem é maior e anterior ao pico observado nas plantas mutantes. Inibição de toda a atividade enzimática de urease nas plantas selvagens pelo inibidor fenilfosforodiamidato não causou as alterações observadas pela ausência da proteína urease nas plantas mutantes. Esses resultados sugerem que o desenvolvimento do nódulo em plantas requer a proteína urease, de maneira independente de sua atividade enzimática. Em contraste, a urease da bactéria parece não influenciar a nodulação ou a fixação biológica de N2 na planta. Concluímos que a urease da soja apresenta um papel relevante na simbiose planta - B. japonicum, independente de sua atividade ureolítica, e não compartilhado com a urease bacteriana. / Ureases (EC 3.5.1.5.) catalyze the hydrolysis of urea in NH3 and CO2, and are synthesized by plants, fungi and bacteria. In the soil, urease occurs in microorganisms and plant roots, and as an extracellular enzyme bound to organic and inorganic compounds. In plants and fungi, ureases consist of trimers or hexamers formed by a subunit of 90 kDa, whereas bacterial enzymes are complexes with two or three subunits. The insertion of two nickel atoms into the active site requires at least three accessory proteins, ureD, ureF, and ureG in bacteria, or their orthologs in plants and fungi. Bradyrhizobium japonicum is a soil bacterium that forms nitrogen fixing nodules on soybean plants. This bacterium produces a urease, and its role in signaling for both the soybean plant and other organisms in the complex environment of the rhizosphere, has not yet been investigated. Thus, the present study aimed to purify and characterize B. japonicum urease (BJU), and to evaluate the role of this enzyme, from both plant and bacteria, in the process of soybean nodulation. The induction of secretion was assessed by the ability of the enzyme to induce platelet aggregation in rabbit platelet-rich plasma monitored by turbidimetry. We found that the urease of B. japonicum possesses the property of aggregating platelets, implying a secretion inducing activity. Chemotaxis assays demonstrated the attraction of recombinant soybean ubiquitous urease upon B. japonicum cells. For nodulation assays, pre-germinated seeds of wild-type soybeans (Williams 82) and of mutants deficient in the urease protein (eu1-sun/eu4) were exposed to cultures of B. japonicum USDA110 (wild-type), B. japonicum ΔureG (lack of urease activity) or B. japonicum ΔureABC (no urease), and planted in modified Leonard jars. The nodules were counted and weighed at different times after inoculation. Additionally, we determined the leghemoglobin content of nodules and the nitrogen content in the shoots, as a way to estimate the efficiency of biological nitrogen fixation. Plants deficient in urease (eu1-sun/eu4) form fewer but larger nodules than wildtype plants, regardless of the phenotype of the bacteria. The peak of leghemoglobin production in wild-type plants is higher and earlier than the peak observed in mutant plants. Inhibition of all the enzymatic activity of urease in wild-type plants by phenylphosphorodiamidate did not result in the alterations seen in mutant plants lacking urease. These results suggest that the development of nodule requires the protein urease, but not its enzyme activity. In contrast, the bacterial urease seems to play no roles in the nodulation and biological N2 fixation in the plant. We conclude that the soybean urease plays an important role in the soybean - B. japonicum symbiosis, which is independent of its ureolytic activity and is not shared by the bacterial urease.

Soybean is a vital cash, oil and protein crop. To achieve good yields and quality, adequate amounts of essential nutrients are required. Therefore, application of P and K plus inoculation with Bradyrhizobium bacteria should be included in the general production of soybean. However, the practice in South Africa is to apply no P and K when producing soybean since the farmers rely on residual P and K from the previous cropping season. The objective of this study was to determine that direct P and K application to a soybean crop may have positive results in terms of production and quality. The research was conducted at the Hatfield Experimental Farm of the University of Pretoria under green-house and open field conditions during the 2010/2011 season. The field trial treatments consisted of combinations of 3 levels of P (0, 20 and 40 kg P ha-1) and 3 levels of K (0, 50 and 100 kg K ha-1)applied in factorial combination for a Completely Randomized Block design, replicated four times. The pot trial was also a factorial experiment using a Completely Randomized Design with the two factors each at five levels of application (P at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 kg P ha-1 and K at 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg K ha-1). Each treatment combination was replicated four times. Phosphorus and K were applied as Superphosphate (10.5%) and KCl (50%) respectively. The cultivar LS 6161R was planted under rain-fed conditions while LS 6162R was used as test crop in the green-house. Seeds were inoculated at planting with Bradyrhizobium japonicum, with no additional N applied during the season. Composite soil samples were collected from each plot and pot before and after planting and analyzed for pH (H2O) and plant-available nutrients. During the growing season,the field trial plants were sampled for LAI while canopy closure and plant height were measured for plants in the middle rows of each plot. Harvesting commenced after leaves senesced and pods had turned brown. The data recorded was on the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of nodes per plant, fresh and dry root, stem and pod mass, 100-seed mass, total seed yield as well as protein and oil content. The results for the field trial showed that K significantly improved plant height, canopy closure and 100-seed mass as compared to the control. The application of P and K revealed no significant impact on leaf area index. Although not significantly, pod number per plant was reduced by applying P, resulting in the control having the highest number of pods. A significant improvement in grain yield was observed through application of K. The highest grain yield (2.60 t ha-1) was observed at the highest K level (100 kg K ha-1). The lowest grain yield was observed where no K fertilizer was applied. Although grain yield was not significantly affected by P nor the P*K interaction, there was a trend of increased yield with increased levels of P and P*K.Phosphorus, irrespective of the application rate, increased protein content but decreased oil content, while increased K application rates resulted in increased oil content while it decreased the protein content as compared to the control. The green-house data showed that plant height was significantly and positively affected by P, K as well as the P*K interaction. Maximum mean plant height were recorded with low application of P and no K (10 kg P + 0 kg K ha-1) as well as medium application of K and no P(0kg P + 100 kg K ha-1) which were significantly higher than the measurements recorded at 20, 30 and 40 kg P ha-1 regardless of K applied. In general, the range in number of nodes per plant was very narrow (19 to 21) and node number was not affected by P and K application. The lower levels of P fertilizer (10 and 20 kg P ha-1) gave the greatest number of pods. P*K interaction effects were not significant. With two exceptions, plants receiving 40 kg P ha-1 regardless of K tended to have the highest number of nodules. Although there was no statistical significance recorded between the treatments, 30 kg P + 150 kg K ha-1 produced the highest root fresh mass which is higher than that of the control plants but on par with plants receiving 10kg P + 100 kg K ha-1. The data on dry root mass of soybean had shown that various rates of P had a negative effect on it. There was a gradual decrease in pod mass with increased application of P from 10 to 40 kg P ha-1with the latter having the lowest pod mass than even that of the control. Although K and P*K interaction were not significant, all K application rates resulted in increased fresh and dry stem mass. From the current study, medium to high levels (± 100-150 kg K ha-1) of K applied directly to the soybean crop can be recommended as it had a positive impact on soybean growth and yield. On the other hand, the plant’s reaction to P was very much dependent on the initial soil P level, resulting in varying reactions. Therefore the farmer’s practice of using residual P from the previous season could not be proven completely wrong. / Dissertation (MSc Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Les Bradyrhizobium photosynthétiques sont capables d'induire la formation de nodules fixateurs d'azote chez certaines légumineuses du genre Aeschynomene. La découverte récente que certaines de ces souches ne possèdent pas les gènes canoniques nodABC indique l'existence d'un nouveau processus symbiotique rhizobium-légumineuse indépendant des facteurs Nod. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse a consisté à avancer dans la compréhension des mécanismes mis en jeu lors de cette nouvelle interaction. Dans un premier temps, à travers différentes approches cytologiques, le processus par lequel la bactérie infecte la plante en l'absence de facteurs Nod a été décrit. Dans un deuxième temps, afin de mettre en évidence les bases moléculaires de cette interaction, une banque de 15 000 mutants Tn5 de la souche ORS278 a été criblée sur plante. Ce criblage a permit l'identification de plus d'une centaine de gènes bactériens intervenant durant le processus symbiotique. Les résultats obtenus nous ont conduits à proposer un modèle dans lequel la mise en place de la symbiose Nod-indépendante impliquerait, d'une part, la synthèse bactérienne d'une cytokinine permettant le déclenchement de l'organogenèse nodulaire, et d'autre part, d'autres signaux bactériens intervenant dans l'étape de reconnaissance avec la plante hôte. Enfin, nous avons mis en place une technique de transformation génétique d'Aeschynomene et validé cet outil à travers l'étude de l'expression hétérologue de la noduline précoce MtENOD11. Il peut à présent être envisagé de conduire des études fonctionnelles sur Aeschynomene en vue de caractériser la voie de signalisation Nod-indépendante. / The photosynthetic Bradyrhizobium are able to induce the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules in some legumes of the Aeschynomene genus. The recent discovery that some of these strains lack the canonical nodABC genes indicates the existence of a new symbiotic rhizobium-legume process that is independent of Nod factors. The aim of this work was to improve our understanding of the mechanisms involved in this new interaction. First, through various cytological approaches, the process by which the bacterium infects the plant in the absence of Nod factors has been described. Second, in order to decipher the molecular basis of this interaction, a library of 15,000 Tn5 mutants of the ORS278 strain was screened on plant. This screening allowed the identification of about one hundred bacterial genes involved in this symbiotic process. These results led us to propose a model in which the establishment of the Nod-independent symbiosis involves, on one han d, the synthesis of a bacterial cytokinin that triggers nodule organogenesis, and on the other hand, others bacterial signals that permit the recognition with the host plant. Finally, we developed a genetic transformation procedure of Aeschynomene and we validated this tool by studying the heterologous expression of the early nodulin MtENOD11. Now, functional studies on Aeschynomene are possible to permit the characterization of the Nod-independent signaling pathway.

Das Bakterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum ist wie andere Rhizobien in der Lage mit Pflanzen der Familie Fabales (Leguminosen) eine Symbiose einzugehen. Im symbiontischen Zustand fixieren die Mikrosymbionten atmosphärischen, molekularen Stickstoff und stellen diesen den Pflanzen in verwertbarer Form zur Verfügung. Im Gegenzug erhalten die Bakterien von den Pflanzen verschiedene Verbindungen als Kohlenstoff- und Energiequelle. Dem geht ein komplexer Signalaustausch voraus um die gegenseitige Erkennung der Partner und die Spezies-spezifische Symbiose zu ermöglichen. Auf Seite der Bakterien erfolgt die Reaktion auf die Gegenwart pflanzlicher Signalmoleküle. In B. japonicum induziert das Flavonoid Genistein die Transkription einer Reihe von Genen. Durch die Expression der nod-Gene erfolgt eine Synthese von Lipochitooligosacchariden. Diese sogenannten Nodulationsfaktoren rufen wiederum eine Reaktion in der Wirtspflanze hervor. Um die zugrunde liegende Genexpression und deren Regulationsmechanismen zu erforschen, standen bis dato nur Methoden für die Untersuchung einzelner Gene zur Verfügung. Die erstmals 1995 publizierte Microarraytechnologie eröffnete die Möglichkeit zu einem Zeitpunkt die Gentranskription eines gesamten Organismus zu untersuchen (Schena et al. 1995). Um mit dieser Technologie die Gentranskription bei B. japonicum zu untersuchen, wurde ein auf PCR-Produkten basierender Microarray hergestellt. Grundlage für die Synthese genspezifischer PCR-Produkte war die symbiontische Region von B. japonicum und andere zu diesem Zeitpunkt bekannte Gensequenzen (Göttfert et al. 2001). Nach der 2002 erfolgten Veröffentlichung des Genoms von B. japonicum erfolgte ein Abgleich der bisher verwendeten Sequenzen mit der vollständigen Sequenzinformation (Kaneko et al. 2002a). Nach Synthese der PCR-Produkte und deren Kontrolle durch Sequenzierung erfolgte die Herstellung des Microarrays unter Einsatz eines Microarrayspotters. Geeignete Techniken der cDNA-Markierung und die Microarray-Hybridisierung wurden mit Total-RNA von B. japonicum-Kulturen ausgetestet und etabliert. Eine differentielle Expremierung war eine Stunde nach Genistein- bzw. Methanolgabe zum Kulturmedium nicht nachweisbar. Zum darauffolgenden Zeitpunkt konnte die bekannte Induktion der nod-Gene durch dass Flavonoid Genistein beobachtet werden. Diese Induktion fiel in den verbleibenden zwei Zeitpunkten stark ab. Dieser Abfall der Induktionsrate ließ sich nicht mit dem Genisteingehalt im Kulturmedium erklären, da dieser Zeitraum konstant blieb. Vier Stunden nach Genisteingabe war die Induktion der Gene nolA und nodD2, deren Produkte sind an der negativen Regulation der nod-Gene beteiligt, nachweisbar. Dies wäre eine mögliche Erklärung für den Abfall der Induktion der nod-Gene. Im gleichen untersuchten Zeitraum wurde die Transkription verschiedener Gene der Stickstofffixierung und Denitrifikation durch das Flavonoid Genistein induziert. Auch für die bekannten Regulatoren dieser Gene war eine Induktion nachweisbar. Nach bisherigen Arbeiten war die Expression dieser Gene auf mikroaerobe und anaerobe Zustände, wie z.B. dem symbiontischen Stadium, beschränkt. Eine Induktion durch Flavonoide ist bisher nicht beobachtet worden. Um die Verwendbarkeit des Microarrays auch für den symbiontischen Zustand von B. japonicum zu testen, wurden Versuche mit Wurzelknöllchen von Sojabohne (Glycine max) durchgeführt. Dafür wurden Keimlinge der Sojabohne (G. max) mit B. japonicum inokuliert und die Total-RNA der entstehenden Wurzelknöllchen isoliert. Jedoch war eine Kreuzhybridisierung mit pflanzlicher Total-RNA zu beobachten. Der auf PCR-Produkten basierende Microarray ist für die Untersuchung des symbiontischen Stadiums von B. japonicum nicht einsetzbar. Im Vergleich dazu wurde ein auf Oligomeren basierender, kommerzieller Microarray für diesen Versuch getestet. Die Kreuzhybridisierung mit pflanzlicher Total-RNA war auf die Oligomere für die 16S rDNA und 23S rDNA reduziert.

Les légumineuses sont capables de développer des organes symbiotiques, les nodules, qui hébergent des bactéries du sol appelées rhizobia. Au sein des nodules les rhizobia intracellulaires se différencient en bactéroïdes capables de réduire l'azote atmosphérique en ammonium au bénéfice de la plante. En contrepartie, la plante alimente la bactérie en sources de carbone. Des études récentes sur le modèle symbiotique Medicago/Sinorhizobium ont montré dans les nodules la forte présence d'une grande diversité de peptides appelés NCR qui sont similaires aux peptides antimicrobiens (AMP) impliqués dans l'immunité innée. Ces NCR sont responsables du maintien de l'homéostasie entre les cellules hôtes et la forte population bactérienne qu'elles contiennent. Bien que certains NCR sont de vrais AMP, capable de tuer des bactéries in vitro, dans les nodules ils induisent plutôt une différenciation terminale caractérisée par une élongation cellulaire, une amplification du génome, une perméabilité membranaire et une perte des capacités de division de la bactérie. Néanmoins le mode d'action des NCR reste à élucider. Au cours de ma thèse j'ai participé à la caractérisation des processus de différenciation dans le modèle Aeschynomene, une légumineuse tropicale, Bradyrhizobium.Dans un premier temps, une nouvelle classe de NCR a été identifiée chez différentes espèces d'Aeschynomene. Ces NCR sont responsables de la différenciation des Bradyrhizobium via un processus similaire à celui décrit chez Medicago. Ces résultats suggèrent une évolution convergente des processus de différenciation chez les Dalbergioïdes (Aeschynomene) et le clade des IRLC (Medicago).Ensuite, pour identifier les fonctions bactériennes requises lors de la différenciation, j'ai criblé 53 mutants Tn5 d'Aeschynomene indica fix- . Huit gènes bactériens dont la mutation inhibe ou affecte le processus de différenciation ont été identifiés. Parmi eux, je me suis focalisé sur la DD-CPase une enzyme de modification du peptidoglycane et sur 2 gènes impliqués dans l'homéostasie du phosphate.La caractérisation du gène DD-CPase1 a permis de démontrer que le remodelage du peptidoglycane est requis pour une différenciation correcte des bactéroïdes chez les plantes hôtes qui produisent des NCR, en général, et chez Aeschynomene en particulier. Ces résultats suggèrent une interaction possible entre DD-CPase1 et des NCR conduisant à l'endoréplication des bactéroïdes.Enfin, j'ai étudié les propriétés physiologiques et symbiotiques des mutants pstC et pstB. Les mutants Tn5 des gènes pstC et pstB de la souche ORS285 de Bradyrhizobium sont sévèrement affectés par la carence en phosphate en culture pure et leurs propriétés symbiotiques (différenciation, réduction de l'azote) sont fortement réduites. Des analyses fonctionnelles plus approfondies de l'opéron Pst devraient permettre une meilleure compréhension du lien entre l'homéostasie du phosphate et l'efficience symbiotique dans l'interaction Aeschynomene-Bradyrhizobium.Mes travaux ont permis d'élargir nos connaissances sur l'évolution de la symbiose en montrant que le modus operandi impliquant des peptides dérivés de l'immunité innée utilisée par certaines légumineuses pour maintenir leur population bactérienne intracellulaire sous contrôle est plus répandue et ancienne qu'on ne le pensait et a été utilisée par l'évolution à plusieurs reprises. De plus différentes cibles bactériennes pouvant participer au processus de différenciation ont également été identifiées. / The legume species are able to form symbiotic organs, the nodules, that house soil bacteria called rhizobia. Within these nodules intracellular rhizobia differentiate into bacteroids, which are able to reduce atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonium for the benefit of the plants. In counterpart, the plants provide carbon sources to the bacteria. Recent studies on symbiotic model Medicago-Sinorhizobium showed that the nodules of M. truncatula produce a massive diversity of peptides called NCRs, which are similar to antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) of innate immune systems. These NCRs are responsible in maintaining the homeostasis between the host cells in the nodules and the large bacterial population they contain. Although many NCRs are genuine AMPs, which kill microbes in vitro, in nodule cells they do not kill the bacteria but induce them into the terminally differentiated bacteroids characterized by cell elongation, genome amplification, membrane permeability and loss of cell division capacity. However, the action mode of NCRs is still an open question. During my PhD thesis I focused on the identification of plant and bacterial functions required for bacteroid differentiation in the Aeschynomene-Bradyrhizobium model.Firstly, a new class of cysteine rich peptides (NCR-like) was identified in tropical aquatic legumes of the Aeschynomene genus, which belong to the Dalbergioid clade. These peptides govern terminal bacteroid differentiation of photosynthetic Bradyrhizobium spp. This mechanism is similar to the one previously described in Medicago suggesting that the endosymbiont differentiation in Dalbergioid and ILRC legumes is convergently evolved.Secondly, in order to identify the bacterial functions involved in bacteroid differentiation, I screened 53 fix- Tn5 mutants of the ORS278 strain on Aeschynomene indica. This screening allowed identify 8 bacterial genes, which inhibit or disorder the bacteroid differentiation. Among these identified genes, I focused on DD-CPase encoding a peptidoglycan-modifying enzyme and two genes pstC and pstB belonging to Pst-system.The characterization of DD-CPase gene demonstrated that the remodeling peptidoglycan enzyme, DD-CPase1, of Bradyrhizobium is required for normal bacteroid differentiation in host legumes that produce NCRs, in general, and in Aeschynomene spp., in particular. This prompts a possibility of direct interaction of DD-CPase1 with NCRs leading to endoreduplication of the bacteroids.Finally, I have investigated the physiological and symbiotic properties of different mutants of pstC and pstB genes. The Tn5 mutants of pstC and pstB genes of Bradyrhizobium sp. strain ORS278 severely affected symbiosis on A. indica and A. evenia. Further functional studies on pst-operon will provide deeper understanding the correlation between phosphate homeostasis and nitrogen fixation efficiency in Aeschynomene-Bradyrhizobium symbiosis.This study broadens our knowledge on the evolution of symbiosis by showing that the modus operandi involving peptides derived from innate immunity used by some legumes to keep their intracellular bacterial population under control is more widespread and ancient than previously thought and has been invented by evolution several times.

Submitted by Katiane Souza (katyane.souza@gmail.com) on 2016-05-12T12:32:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 668460 bytes, checksum: 2a0b849937526e4e408405929b2c27da (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-12T12:32:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 668460 bytes, checksum: 2a0b849937526e4e408405929b2c27da (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-12-21 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / The use of practices of low impact, as the inoculation of bacteria fixadoras of atmospheric nitrogen, it has been contributing for elevating the productivity of the bean caupi in some producing areas. The objective of the work was to evaluate the efficiency of Rhizobium strains in the production and physiologic quality of cowpea seeds, to cultivate "Corujinha". The research consisted of evaluation of the efficiency of Rhizobium strains and her influence in the production and quality of seeds (Chapter I); influence of those strains in the absorption of nutrients (Chapter II) and, agronomic evaluation of the Rhizobium strains and her influence in the production and quality of seeds (Chapter III). The same treatments were used in the different times of planting of the culture (2005 and 2006) in Neossolo Regolítico. DBC was used with four repetitions, being the treatments: Rhizobium strains (BR 3301, BR 3302, BR 3267, BR 3299 and BR 3262); nitrogen fertilizer (50 kg ha-1; 80 kg ha-1), and control (without inoculation and without N). The portions had 24 m2, with plants spaced in 0,5m x 0,5m, with three plants for hole and useful area of 6 m2. The results were submitted to the variance analysis with averages compared by the test of Scott-Knott to 5%. As for the productivity, a similar development was verified among the strains no recommended officially (BR 3262 and BR 3299) and those already suitable as official strains for the cowpea, however without differing of the fertilized treatments (80 and/or 50 kg ha-1) with N, in the two years of planting. The best ones percentile of germination they were observed with the use of the strains BR 3301 and BR 3302, in the two planting times. The plantules came more vigorous (mass dries of plantules) when originating from big seeds. The absorption of nutrients (NPK) in the plants inoculated by strains was similar that reached by plants fertilized with mineral nitrogen (50 and 80 kg ha-1) and to the treatment it controls. The native strains (it controls) they presented similar acting of the inoculated strains in the two years of cultivation of the cowpea. / O uso de práticas de baixo impacto, como uso de bactérias fixadoras de nitrogênio atmosférico, tem proporcionado aumentos na produtividade do feijãocaupi em algumas áreas produtoras. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência de estirpes de rizóbio na produção e qualidade fisiológica de sementes de feijão-caupi, cultivar "Corujinha". A pesquisa constou de avaliação da eficiência de estirpes de rizóbio e sua influência na produção e qualidade de sementes (Capítulo I); influência dessas estirpes na absorção de nutrientes (Capítulo II) e, avaliação agronômica das estirpes de rizóbio e sua influência na produção e qualidade de sementes (Capítulo III). O plantio foi realizado em Neossolo Regolítico durante duas épocas (2005 e 2006), sendo utilizado, em ambas, os mesmos tratamentos. Foi utilizado o DBC com quatro repetições, sendo os tratamentos: estirpes de rizóbio (BR 3301, BR 3302, BR 3267, BR 3299 e BR 3262); adubação nitrogenada (50 kg ha-1; 80 kg ha-1), e controle (sem inoculação e sem nitrogênio). As parcelas possuíam 24 m2, com plantas espaçadas em 0,5m x 0,5m, deixando-se três plantas por cova, e área útil de 6 m2. Os resultados foram submetidos à análise de variância com as médias comparadas pelo teste de Scott-Knott a 5%. Quanto à produtividade, foi verificado um desenvolvimento similar entre as estirpes ainda não recomendadas oficialmente (BR 3262 e BR 3299) e os demais tratamentos, nos dois anos de plantio. Os melhores percentuais de germinação foram observados com a utilização das estirpes BR 3301 e BR 3302, nas duas épocas de plantio. As plântulas de caupi apresentaram-se mais vigorosas (massa seca de plântulas) quando oriundas de sementes de maior tamanho. A absorção de nutrientes (NPK) nas plantas inoculadas por estirpes foi similar àquela alcançada por plantas adubadas com nitrogênio mineral (50 e 80 kg ha-1) e no tratamento controle. As respostas do tratamento controle indicam uma população nativa de estirpes de rizóbio que apresentaram bom desempenho nos dois anos de plantio.

Le genre Bradyrhizobium est le genre de rhizobia qui nodule la plus grande diversité d’espèces de légumineuses. Certaines de ces bactéries ont la particularité d’établir une symbiose fonctionnelle avec des légumineuses du genre Aeschynomene en utilisant un processus Nod-indépendant. De plus, au sein des nodules d’Aeschynomene, les Bradyrhizobium subissent une différenciation terminale en bactéroïde qui s’accompagne de modifications métaboliques et morphologiques drastiques. A la différence de la majorité des autres rhizobia, des hopanoïdes sont retrouvés au sein des membranes de l’ensemble des souches de Bradyrhizobium, dont certains, de façon inédite, liés à l’une des très longue chaîne d’acide gras (VLCFA) présentent sur le lipide A du LPS de ces bactéries. De plus, le LPS des Bradyrhizobium photosynthétiques possède un antigène-O également inédit et non-immunogénique. Le but de cette thèse était de déterminer si les particularités de la membrane externe des Bradyrhizobium pouvaient être impliquées dans la physiologie de ces bactéries ainsi que dans l’initiation et le maintien de la symbiose avec Aeschynomene. Les résultats obtenus ont mis en évidence que les hopanoïdes et plus particulièrement ceux liés au lipide A, ainsi que les VLCFAs permettent de rigidifier la membrane externe des Bradyrhizobium. Ces propriétés leur confèrent ainsi une plus grande résistance face aux conditions de stress, dont celles présentes au sein des nodules d’Aeschynomene, ce qui permet aux Bradyrhizobium de maintenir une symbiose efficiente avec ces plantes. Ces travaux ont ainsi permis d’avancer dans la connaissance de la voie de biosynthèse et du rôle du LPS atypique et des hopanoïdes des Bradyrhizobium et pourrait conduire à la production d’inocula plus résistants. / The Bradyrhizobium genus is the genus of rhizobia which nodulates the widest range of legume species. Some of these bacteria have the peculiarity of establishing a functional symbiosis with legumes of the genus Aeschynomene using a Nod-independent process. Moreover, within Aeschynomene nodules, the Bradyrhizobium strains undergo a terminal differentiation into bacteroids which is accompanied by drastic metabolic and morphological changes. Unlike the majority of other rhizobia, hopanoids are found in the membranes of all the Bradyrhizobium strains, some of which linked to one of the very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) on the lipid A of these bacteria. In addition, LPS of photosynthetic Bradyrhizobium have an O-antigen that is also unique and non-immunogenic. The aim of this thesis was to determine whether the peculiarities of the external membrane of Bradyrhizobium strains could be implicated in the physiology of these bacteria as well as in the initiation and maintenance of the symbiosis with Aeschynomene. The obtained results showed that hopanoids and more particularly those linked to the lipid A, as well as the VLCFAs rigidify and stabilize the outer membrane of Bradyrhizobium strains. These properties give them greater resistance to stress conditions, including those present in Aeschynomene nodules, which allows the Bradyrhizobium to maintain an efficient symbiosis with these plants. This work allowed us to advance in the understanding of the biosynthesis and the role of the atypical LPS and the hopanoids produced by the Bradyrhizobium strains and could lead to the production of more resistant inocula.

Acacia mangium Willd. est une légumineuse ligneuse introduite dans de nombreux pays tropicaux à partir de son aire d'origine (Australie), avec ou sans inoculations volontaires par des rhizobiums sélectionnés. Des campagnes d'échantillonnage des bactéries symbiotiques fixatrices d'azote ont été réalisées dans sa zone d'origine à différentes époques (1986, 2007 et 2009) et dans trois zones d'introduction (Brésil, Sénégal et Malaisie). Après isolement et test de nodulation homologue, la diversité de plus de 500 souches a été analysée sur un gène de ménage (recA) et un gène symbiotique (nodA). Nous avons confirmé qu'A. mangium était essentiellement nodulé par des Bradyrhizobium. La comparaison des communautés symbiotiques issues de la zone d'origine et des zones d'introduction montre une importante diversité dans la région d'origine et une diversité plus réduite dans les zones d'introduction. En Australie, quelques génotypes sont majoritaires et persistent durant 20 ans. Une structuration phylogéographique et un isolement par la distance à une échelle mondiale ont été mis en évidence pour le gène symbiotique nodA. Enfin, lorsque A. mangium a été introduit conjointement avec une souche sélectionnée, le devenir de cet inoculum est variable en fonction des essais d'introduction. De plus, nous mettons en évidence des phénomènes de transfert du gène symbiotique nodA entre une souche introduite et les bactéries autochtones. Les résultats acquis nous permettent d'émettre des recommandations en termes de sauvegarde de la biodiversité microbienne symbiotique en zone naturelle, et sur la pertinence de procéder à des inoculations lors de la mise en place de plantations d'A. mangium. / From Australia, its native area and since three decades, the legume tree Acacia mangium Willd. has been introduced in many tropical countries, sometimes with selected rhizobium strains. A. mangium symbiotic nodule bacteria have been sampled in Australia at different times (1986, 2007, 2009), as well as in countries where it was introduced for inoculation trials (Brazil, Senegal and Malaysia). More than 500 isolates were obtained and checked for homologous nodulation. They were then characterized on the housekeeping recA and symbiotic nodA genes. We demonstrated through this study that A. mangium was almost always nodulated by Bradyrhizobium. Phylogenies of the obtained sequences were made, showing a high level of bacterial diversity in the native area, and a much more reduced diversity in introduced areas. In Australia, some genotypes were predominant and persist over 20 years. A phylogeographic structuration and isolation by distance at a global scale were demonstrated for the nodA symbiotic gene. Among introduced areas, the main result was the unsystematic occurrence of inoculated strains. We highlighted horizontal nodA symbiotic gene transfer between inoculated and indigenous bacterial strains. These data allow to make recommendations in terms of microbial diversity conservation in natural areas and on the need for inoculation of A. mangium in forestry practices.