An investigation was made of concepts for mechanizing the selective harvest of broccoli. Selective harvesting has advantages over once-over harvesting because of greater yield and reduced handling requirements. Results of a preliminary experiment measuring broccoli stalk cutting forces indicated that the blade speed for a broccoli cutting mechanism should be as fast as possible to minimize the required cutting force. A manually-directed, powered cutting device was designed to fit readily into existing broccoli harvest systems. In tests the first year with the device, the harvest rate was substantially faster than hand harvest rates measured at commercial farms, but the level of leaf-stripping achieved with the device was unacceptably low. A new cutting device included an added leaf-stripping mechanism and had a mounting arrangement that allowed the harvesting of two double rows at once. In tests the second year, leaf-stripping was much improved, but the overall harvest rate was only marginally better because of extra manipulation required to activate the leaf-stripping mechanism. Measurements related to mechanical harvesting were made on broccoli plants both years. Head height, stalk diameter, and head weight were strongly affected by harvest time and in-row plant spacing. Height and stalk diameter were moderately correlated to head diameter. A regression model for predicting head diameter from height and stalk diameter indicated that potential exists for using a combination of the two parameters for sizing broccoli heads. Head weight was highly correlated to height and stalk diameter. Two concepts for automatic mature head selection were evaluated. The results of an experiment measuring the force required to uproot broccoli plants indicated that physically sizing broccoli heads using spaced fingers would only be feasible if late season irrigations could be incorporated in a harvest system. Digital image processing for head selection appears more promising. An image processing algorithm based on the gray level run length method of textural analysis was developed for predicting broccoli head area. Accurate head classification was obtained with the model. For an automatic selective harvester, an image processing system can be coupled with a cutting device with the major advantage that leaf~stripping can be accomplished automatically during the harvesting action. / Ph. D.

Thesis (MScAgric (Agronomy))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Little is known about the nutrient requirements of broccoli grown for seed production. During 2006 and 2007 broccoli were grown for seed production in sand bags in a net structure, using a drain to waste hydroponic system. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with seven treatments replicated in four blocks. In 2006 seven nutrient solution treatments were tested. The Standard solution based on Steiner’s universal solution was compared with different levels of N, S, K and Ca with regard to the effect on total biomass, nutrient concentration, nutrient assimilation, seed yield and quality. No significant differences in total biomass produced were found. Total dry mass increased by 225% from the mature head stage until harvest of seed. Nutrient concentration in plant samples were not influenced by treatments except where low levels of K and S in nutrient solutions led to significantly lower levels of K and S concentrations. The total assimilation of elements were calculated to determine the effect of the much longer growth period needed for seed production in comparison to normal head production on nutrient requirements. Major elements assimilated ha-1 was: N 173.0 kg, P 35.5 kg, K 348.4 kg, Ca 114.7 kg, Mg 30.5 kg, S 42.2 kg. The seven treatments used during 2007 included three of the treatments which were used in 2006 as well as treatments with foliar sprays containing Ammonium Nitrate and Calcium Metalosate. The standard solution treatment was also used in 2007 to compare results with 2006. Plant analysis done on plants from the standard solution (2006 & 2007) showed similar trends. As the plants developed towards maturity there was a relative increase in concentration in the top plant parts (pods, flowers and stems) for Ca, Mg and S. Contrary, N and P concentration declined. The minor elements, Fe, Mn and B also increased in concentration in the top plant parts at harvest indicating a strong relative flow of these elements to the top plant parts towards maturation. Concentration values of major elements in plant samples were generally different when the two years were compared. Element concentrations in the seed pods were in general higher than in the rest of the plant indicating the pods as a strong sink on the plants. During both years the two best nutrient solutions for yield were the same, namely the Standard solution and Standard - K which contain low levels of K. During 2006 no significant differences in seed quality were found. During 2007 no significant differences were found for seed quality measurements, except for size (of the cotyledons). The results indicate that no special adjustments need to be made to the Standard solution in order to produce good broccoli seed yield of good quality. As substantial differences in nutrient solution composition did not significantly affect the quality of broccoli seed produced. Seed yield was however significantly affected by nutrient solution composition. Key words: Brassica seed, broccoli seed, seed production, broccoli nutrition, hydroponic production, broccoli production, nutrient assimilation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Min inligting is bekend rakende die voedingsbehoeftes van brokkoli wat gekweek word vir saadproduksie. Gedurende 2006 en 2007 is brokkoli gekweek vir saadproduksie in sakke sand in ‘n net struktuur met ‘n oop hidroponiese besproeiingstelsel. Die proefontwerp was ‘n ewekanisige geheel blok met sewe behandelings wat ewekansig binne bloke toegeken is en herhaal is in vier blokke. Sewe voedingsmengsel behandelings is gedurende 2006 toegepas. Die Standaard mengsel is geskoei op Steiner se universele mengsel en dit is vergelyk met verskillende vlakke van N, S, K en Ca t.o.v. die invloed daarvan op biomassa produksie, voedingselement konsentrasie, voedingselement assimilasie, saad opbrengs en saad kwaliteit. Biomassa geproduseer het nie wesenlik verskil nie. Totale droë massa het met 225% toegeneem vanaf die volwasse kop tot die oes stadium. Die konsentrasie van voedings elemente in plant monsters is nie beïnvloed deur behandelings nie behalwe in gevalle waar lae konsentrasies van K en S in die voedingsmengsels gelei het tot lae konsentrasies van K en S in plantontledings. Die totale opname van voedingselemente is bereken om die effek van die veel langer groeiperiode wat benodig word vir saadproduksie in vergelyking met normale kop produksie te bepaal t.o.v. voedingselement behoefte. Makro element opname per hektaar was as volg: N 173.0 kg, P 35.5 kg, K 348.4 kg, Ca 114.7 kg, Mg 30.5 kg, S 42.2 kg. Die sewe behandelings van 2007 het drie behandelings van 2006 ingesluit asook behandelings van blaarbespuitings met Ammonium Nitraat en Kalsium Metalosaat. Die Standaard voedingsmengsel is weer gebruik ten einde die resultate van 2006 en 2007 te vergelyk. Voedingselement ontledings op plante van die Standaard mengsel (2006 & 2007) is vergelyk en het soortgelyke tendense aangedui. Soos wat plante ontwikkel het na volwassenheid was daar ‘n relatiewe toename in konsentrasie in die boonste plant dele (peule, blomme en stele) van Ca, Mg en S. In teenstelling hiermee het die konsentrasies van N en P afgeneem. Die mikro elemente Fe, Mn en B het ook in konsentrasie toegeneem in die boonste plant dele teen oes wat daarop dui dat daar ‘n sterk relatiewe vloei van hiedie elemente na die boonste plant dele plaasvind met volwasse wording. Die konsentrasie vlakke van makro elemente in plantontledings het in die algemeen wesenlik verskil tussen die twee jare. Die voedingselement konsentrasies was in die algemeen hoër in die saad peule as in die res van die plant wat daarop dui dat die peule as ‘n sterk sink op die plant funksioneer. In beide jare was die hoogste opbrengs afkomstig van die Standaard voedingsmengsel en die Standaard – K mengsel wat lae vlakke van K bevat het. Gedurende 2006 is geen wesenlike verskille in saadkwaliteitsnorme gevind nie. Soortgelyke resultate is gevind in 2007 behalwe vir grootte van die kiemblare. Die resultate dui daarop dat dit nie nodig is om die Standaard voedingsmengsel samestelling te verander ten einde goeie opbrengs saad van goeie gehalte te produseer nie. Wesenlike verskille in voedingsmengsels het geen invloed op die kwaliteit van brokkoli saad gehad nie. Saad opbrengs is egter wesenlik beïnvloed deur die samestelling van die voedingsmengsels. Sleutel woorde: brassica saad, brokkoli saad, saad produksie, brokkoli voeding, hidroponiese produksie, brokkoli produksie, voedingstof assimilasie.

Downy mildew of broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower is caused by the plant pathogenic fungus Peronospora parasitica. Cool damp weather with high humidity is highly favorable for sporulation, dissemination of spores, and infection by this pathogen. The severity of disease is affected by the duration of these weather conditions favorable for disease development. Potential new fungicides were evaluated for disease control in a field trial conducted in the winter of 1992-93. For broccoli, no significant differences in disease severity were detected among treatments. On the other hand, Microthiol and Microthiol + Maneb significantly reduced the number of downy mildew lesions on cabbage and cauliflower compared to nontreated plants. Maneb alone provided significant disease control on cabbage, but not on cauliflower.

Submitted by Riscelly Santana Magalhães (riscellysm@yahoo.com.br) on 2018-04-17T14:08:44Z No. of bitstreams: 1 RISCELLY S MAGALHAES DISSERTAÇAO FINAL.pdf: 932501 bytes, checksum: c2d917ba32666cdb1776d82a3adf6c77 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Lucia Martins Frederico null (mlucia@fca.unesp.br) on 2018-04-17T15:32:45Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 magalhaes_rs_me_botfca.pdf: 878435 bytes, checksum: d236e45a87a39b3f6a57ac5f8dbbefb5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-17T15:32:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 magalhaes_rs_me_botfca.pdf: 878435 bytes, checksum: d236e45a87a39b3f6a57ac5f8dbbefb5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-06 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / As brássicas são hortaliças de importante valor econômico, bem como boa fonte de minerais, vitaminas e de substâncias com propriedades anticarcinogênicas. O romanesco é uma hortaliça herbácea, com anatomia muito parecida à de brócolis e couve-flor, sendo mais tenra que a couve-flor. Foram realizados dois experimentos. No primeiro, objetivou-se avaliar a efetividade do uso de atmosfera modificada passiva na manutenção da qualidade pós-colheita do romanesco através das avaliações físico-químicas dos mesmos, mantidos sob refrigeração. No segundo, faz-se uma comparação entre as brássicas: romanesco, couve-de-folha, couve-flor, brócolis ramoso e brócolis de inflorescência única. No primeiro experimento foram realizados os seguintes tratamentos: T1: armazenamento em bandeja de poliestireno expandido sem filme; T2: armazenamento em bandeja de poliestireno expandido recoberta com filme de policloreto de vinila (PVC); T3: armazenamento em filme plástico de polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD) de 0,6µ; T4: armazenamento em filme plástico de polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD) de 0,8µ. Após a realização dos tratamentos os romanescos foram armazenados em câmara fria a temperatura de 5 ± 1 °C e UR entre 80 ± 5 % durante 16 dias, sendo avaliados de quatro em quatro dias. Utilizaram-se seis repetições por tratamento. Neste experimento foram realizadas as seguintes avaliações físico-químicas: teores de macronutrientes das folhas e inflorescências, perda de massa, sólidos solúveis, potencial hidrogeniônico (pH), acidez titulável, ácido ascórbico, açúcares redutores, clorofila a e b, antocianina e carotenoides. No segundo experimento foram avaliadas as características físico-químicas: número de folhas por planta; massa da matéria fresca das folhas; massa da matéria fresca da inflorescência; diâmetro transversal da inflorescência, circunferência da inflorescência, massa do ramo sem caule, sólidos solúveis, potencial hidrogeniônico (pH), acidez titulável, ácido ascórbico (exceto couve-de-folha), clorofila a e b, antocianina, carotenoides, açúcares redutores, proteína bruta, cinza, umidade, lipídeos e fibra bruta. Foi realizada análise de variância, teste de Tukey considerando-se um nível de significância p˂0,05, média e desvio padrão. Observou-se que para as características sólidos solúveis, pH, acidez titulável e ácido ascórbico, a utilização de filmes plásticos foi importante para a conservação e manutenção das características do romanesco, a partir do 12° dia de armazenamento, enquanto que para açúcares redutores, clorofila a e b, antocianina e carotenoides, foi importante em todos os tratamentos e dias de armazenamento. Para a perda de massa, a utilização de filmes plásticos foi essencial para a conservação do romanesco, possibilitando a viabilidade comercial do produto final. Para o número de folhas por planta; massa da matéria fresca das folhas; massa da matéria fresca da inflorescência; diâmetro transversal da inflorescência, circunferência da inflorescência e massa do ramo sem caule, as médias variaram, com exceção do número de folhas por planta e massa da matéria fresca das folhas do romanesco, quando comparado as demais brássicas. Para sólidos solúveis, pH, acidez titulável, pigmentos, açúcares redutores, proteína bruta, cinza, umidade, lipídeos e fibra bruta, foram observadas diferenças significativas entre as brássicas avaliadas. / The brassicas are vegetables of important economic value, as well as good source of minerals, vitamins and substances with anticarcinogenic properties. The romanesco is an herbaceous vegetable, with anatomy very similar to that of broccoli and cauliflower, being tenderer than cauliflower. Two experiments were carried out. In the first one, the objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of the use of passive modified atmosphere in the maintenance of post-harvest quality of the romanesco through the physical-chemical evaluations of the same, kept under refrigeration. In the second, a comparison is made between the brassicas: romanesco, cabbage leaf, cauliflower, branchy broccoli, and single inflorescence broccoli. In the first experiment the following treatments were performed: T1: tray storage of expanded polystyrene without film; T2: tray storage of expanded polystyrene coated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film; T3: storage of low density polyethylene (LDPE) film of 0.6μ; T4: low density polyethylene plastic film (LDPE) of 0.8μ. After the treatments, the romanescos were stored in a cold room at 5 ± 1 ° C and RH at 80 ± 5% for 16 days and evaluated every four days. Six replicates were used per treatment. In this experiment the following physical and chemical evaluations were performed: macronutrient contents of leaves and inflorescences, loss of mass, soluble solids, hydrogenation potential (pH), titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, reducing sugars, chlorophyll a and b, anthocyanin and carotenoids. In the second experiment the physical-chemical characteristics were evaluated: number of leaves per plant; mass of fresh leaf matter; mass of fresh inflorescence matter; (pH), titratable acidity, ascorbic acid (except leaf kale), chlorophyll a and b, anthocyanin, carotenoids, reducing sugars, crude protein , ash, moisture, lipids and crude fiber. A variance analysis was performed, Tukey's test considering a level of significance p˂0.05, mean and standard deviation. It was observed that for the soluble solid characteristics, pH, titratable acidity and ascorbic acid, the use of plastic films was important for the preservation and maintenance of the characteristics of the romanesco, from the 12 day of storage, whereas for reducing sugars, chlorophyll a and b, anthocyanin and carotenoids, was important in all treatments and storage days. For the loss of mass, the use of plastic films was essential for the preservation of the romanesco, allowing the commercial viability of the final product. For the number of leaves per plant; mass of fresh leaf matter; mass of fresh inflorescence matter; the transverse diameter of the inflorescence, the circumference of the inflorescence and the mass of the stem less branch, the averages varied, except for the number of leaves per plant and fresh matter mass of the leaves of the romanesco, when compared to the other brassicas. For soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, pigments, reducing sugars, crude protein, ash, moisture, lipids and crude fiber, significant differences were observed among the evaluated brassicas.

O brócolis (Brassica oleraceae var. italica) é uma das hortaliças mais importantes do país, cujo volume de comercialização na CEAGESP é de aproximadamente 13 mil toneladas por ano. Recentemente, uma nova doença tem causado perdas relevantes para as culturas instaladas na maior região produtora do Estado de São Paulo. Os sintomas característicos da doença são expressos pelo enfezamento da planta e necrose dos vasos de floema. Devido ao fato destes sintomas indicarem a presença de fitoplasmas nas culturas de repolho e couve-flor, localizadas na mesma região geográfica onde foi observada esta nova doença, levantou-se a suspeita de que estes mesmos agentes patogênicos pudessem estar associados com as plantas doentes de brócolis. Assim, o DNA total de plantas de brócolis sintomáticas foi analisado por PCR com primers específicos para a região 16S rDNA de fitoplasmas. Os resultados revelaram que estes patógenos estavam associados com as plantas doentes. Através das técnicas de RFLP do sequenciamento de nucleotídeos desta mesma região genômica, os fitoplasmas foram identificados como pertencentes aos grupos 16SrI, 16SrIII e 16SrXIII. Através de análise de RFLP, fitoplasmas também foram identificados em diversas espécies de plantas daninhas e em cigarrinhas da família Cicadellidae coletadas em áreas adjacentes a campos de produção de brócolis. Fitoplasmas do grupo 16SrIII foram identificados em plantas daninhas das espécies Agetarum conyzoides (mentrasto), Crotalaria lanceolata (crotalária), Lepidium virginicum (mentruz), Nicandra physalodes (juá-de-capote), Paulicourea marcgravii (erva-de-rato), Ricinus communis (mamona), Sida rhombifolia (guanxuma), Sonchus oleraceae (serralha amarela), Bidens pilosa (picão preto), Erigeron bonariensis (buva), Emilia sonchifolia (falsa serralha), Leonorus sibiricus (rubim), enquanto que fitoplasmas do grupo 16SrVII foram encontrados as últimas quatro espécies citadas. Com relação aos insetos, fitoplasmas foram detectados em indivíduos das subfamílias Deltocephalinae, Agalliinae e Typhlocybinae. Dentro da subfamília Deltocephalinae, a cigarrinha Balclutha hebe portava fitoplasma do grupo 16SrI, enquanto que cigarrinhas das espécies Atanus nitidus, Planicephalus flavicosta e Schapytopius fuliginosus abrigavam fitoplasmas do grupo 16SrIII. Nos tecidos de duas cigarrinhas da subfamília Agalliinae e uma da Typhlocybinae, as quais não foram identificadas quanto a espécie, foram encontrados fitoplasmas do grupo 16SrIII. As análises epidemiológicas revelaram um padrão espacial agregado de plantas doentes e a ocorrência de um maior progresso da doença nos bordos dos campos de cultivo de brócolis, que estão localizados nas proximidades de áreas com a presença de plantas daninhas. / Broccoli (Brassica oleraceae var. italica) is one of the most important vegetables in Brazil, whose trading volume in CEAGESP is approximately 13 000 tons per year. Recently, a new disease has caused significant losses in this crop cultivated in the largest producing region of the São Paulo State. The characteristic symptoms of the disease are expressed by plant stunting and necrosis of phloem vessels. Because these symptoms indicate the presence of phytoplasmas in cabbage and cauliflower crops, grown in the same geographical region, it was suspected that the same pathogens could be associated with the affected broccoli plants. Therefore, the total DNA from symptomatic plants of broccoli was analyzed by PCR with specific primers for the 16S rDNA of phytoplasmas. Through the techniques of RFLP and nucleotide sequencing of the same genomic region, the phytoplasmas were identified as belonging to the groups 16SrI, 16SrIII and 16SrXIII. Through RFLP analysis, phytoplasmas were also identified in several species of weeds and leafhoppers in the family Cicadellidae collected in adjacent areas of broccoli fields. Phytoplasmas belonging of the 16SrIII group were identified in the weeds belonging to the species Agetarum conyzoides, Crotalaria lanceolata, Lepidium virginicum, Nicandra physalodes, Paulicourea marcgravii, Ricinus communis, Sida rhombifolia, Sonchus oleraceae, Bidens pilosa, Erigeron bonariensis, Emilia sonchifolia, Leonorus sibiricus, while phytoplasmas of the 16SrVII group were found in the last four mentioned species. In respect to insects, phytoplasmas were detected in individuals from subfamilies Deltocephalinae, Agalliinae and Typhlocybinae. Within the subfamily Deltocephalinae, the leafhopper Balclutha hebe carried phytoplasmas of the 16SrI group, while that of the species Atanus nitidus, Planicephalus flavicosta e Schapytopius fuliginosus harbored phytoplasmas of the 16SrIII group. In the tissues of two leafhoppers of the subfamily Agalliinae and one of the Typhlocybinae, which were not identified as specie, were found phytoplasmas of the 16SrIII group. The epidemiological analysis revelead an aggregated pattern of the diseased plants and a higher progress of the diseased in the border of the broccoli fields, whitch were located nearby areas where the presence of weeds was abundant.

Este estudo teve como objetivo inicial avaliar a multiplicação de Staphylococcus aureus e Escherichia coli em frutas e vegetais expostos a diferentes temperaturas. Para identificar as frutas e vegetais frequentemente servidos em buffet, foram visitados restaurantes comerciais (n=50), onde os principais alimentos encontrados foram: cenoura ralada, brócolis, pepino, repolho verde, tomate, melancia e mamão. Amostras desses vegetais foram adquiridas em supermercado local e processadas ou preparadas conforme modo de consumo, sendo então contaminadas artificialmente com um pool de S. aureus e E. coli, separadamente, e expostos a 10, 20 e 30 °C. Os resultados desses experimentos demonstraram que não houve multiplicação dessas bactérias nas frutas e vegetais expostos a 10 °C durante 6 h. A 20 e 30 °C, S. aureus demonstrou multiplicação mais rápida no brócolis, onde a fase estacionária iniciou em menos de 2 h, possivelmente por este ser o único alimento cozido nesse estudo. Observou-se também que a 30 °C, E. coli se multiplicou em menos de 2 h nos seguintes alimentos: mamão, pepino, melancia e brócolis. Já no tomate, S. aureus não se multiplicou em nenhuma temperatura avaliada. No entanto, a população final de E. coli no tomate atingiu 9,7 log, em 24 h, a 30 °C, apesar do baixo pH (4,21). Por esse motivo e porque o tomate foi o vegetal mais frequentemente servido nos restaurantes comerciais avaliados, foi utilizado o modelo primário de Baranyi para modelar os parâmetros cinéticos de multiplicação e o modelo secundário de Ratkowsky para modelar a taxa de multiplicação e o tempo de fase lag em função da temperatura de E. coli no tomate, exposto a temperaturas de 10 a 37 °C. Os resultados obtidos indicaram que a fase lag da E. coli no tomate foi de 2,13 h e 2,46 h quando exposto a 37 e 30 °C, enquanto que a 20 e 10 °C, as fases lag foram de 15,6 h e 42,5 h, respectivamente. O modelo secundário foi integrado em uma simulação com dados nacionais de temperaturas reais coletados em planilhas de serviços de alimentação de 225 restaurantes de três regiões do Brasil (Sul, Sudeste e Norte/Nordeste). Aplicando o modelo gerado, foi observado que E. coli é capaz de se multiplicar em tomate em 1,58 h a 29,3 °C, temperatura mais crítica encontrada na cadeia de distribuição do tomate. Em seguida, realizou-se outro estudo no intuito de avaliar o comportamento de S. aureus em brócolis tratados termicamente, visto que este micro-organismo obteve um grande potencial de multiplicação nesse alimento. Também foram desenvolvidos modelos primário e secundário para avaliar a multiplicação do S. aureus em brócolis expostos a temperaturas de 10 a 37 °C. Nesse alimento, a fase lag de S. aureus foi de 1,4 h quando o vegetal foi exposto a 30 e 37 °C; enquanto que a 20 e 10 °C as fases lag foram de 5,3 h e 160 h, respectivamente. O modelo secundário foi capaz de descrever a influência da temperatura (de 10 a 37 °C) sobre a taxa de multiplicação e a fase lag de S. aureus em brócolis. Os resultados demonstraram que as frutas e vegetais avaliados podem ser distribuídas sob temperaturas de refrigeração de 10 °C ou menos e não devem ser mantidas mais de 2 h em temperaturas próximas de 30 a 37 oC, a fim de evitar a multiplicação bacteriana. Tais parâmetros podem contribuir na gestão de segurança dos alimentos em serviços de alimentação, prevenindo Doenças Transmitidas por Alimentos. / This study aimed to evaluate the multiplication of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on fruits and vegetables exposed to different temperatures. To identify the fruits and vegetables most frequently served in buffet, commercial restaurants (n=50) were visited, where the main foods found were: grated carrots, broccoli, cucumber, green cabbage, tomato, watermelon and papaya. Samples of these vegetables were purchased from the local supermarket and processed or prepared according to the mode of consumption and were then artificially contaminated with a pool of S. aureus and E. coli separately and exposed at 10, 20 and 30 ° C. The results of these experiments demonstrated that these microorganisms did not grow on fruits and vegetables exposed to 10 °C during 6 h. At 20 and 30 ° C, S. aureus showed faster multiplication on broccoli, where the stationary phase started in less than 2 h, possibly because this was the only food cooked in that study. It was also observed at 30 ° C, where E. coli multiplied in less than 2 h in the following foods: papaya, cucumber, watermelon and broccoli. On tomato, S. aureus did not multiply at any evaluated temperature. However, the final E. coli population in this same food reached 9.7 log CFU/g in 24 h at 30 ° C, despite the low fruit pH (4.21). For this reason, and because tomato was the most frequently served food in the evaluated commercial restaurants, the Baranyi primary model was used to model the kinetic parameters of multiplication and the Ratkowsky secondary model to model the multiplication rate and lag phase time as a function of the temperature of E. coli on tomato, which was exposed to temperatures of 10 to 37 °C.The results indicated that the lag phase of E. coli on tomato was 2.13 h and 2.46 h when exposed at 37 and 30 °C, respectively; while at 20 °C and 10 ° C the lag phases were 15.6 h and 42.5 h, in that order. The secondary model was integrated in a simulation with national real temperature data collected in food service of 225 restaurants in three regions of Brazil (Southern, Southeast and North / Northeast). Applying the generated model, it was observed that E. coli was able to grow on tomato at 1.58 h at 29.3 ° C, the most critical temperature found on tomato distribution chain. Another study developed was the behavior of S. aureus in heat treated broccoli, because this microorganism obtained a high growth potential for this food. Primary and secondary models were also developed to evaluate the behavior of S. aureus stored at 10-37 °C. The lag phase of broccoli was 1.4 h when the bacteria was exposed at 30 and 37 °C; while at 20 °C and 10 °C the lag phases were 5.3 h and 160 h, respectively. Secondary models were able to describe the influence of temperature (10-37 °C) on the growth rate and lag phase of S. aureus on broccoli. The results demonstrated that the evaluated fruits and vegetables can be distributed under refrigeration temperatures of 10 °C or less and should not be maintained for longer than 2 h at temperatures close to 30 to 37 °C in order to avoid bacterial multiplication. Such parameters can contribute to the management of food safety in food services, preventing Foodborne Diseases.

This thesis examines the growth response and inter-relationships between shoots and roots of plants grown in compact soil. In the field, two topsoil and two subsoil conditions were created with five vegetable crops sequentially grown. Between 6 and 12% of the root system grew in the compact subsoil, which had a soil strength of 3.1 c.f. 1.9 MPa in the loosened subsoil. Both the root length density (Lv) and the specific root length were lower in the compact subsoil (80% and 30%, respectively). This had no effect on shoot growth when water and nutrients were well supplied. Compensatory root growth in the lose soil above the compact subsoil occurred in broccoli plants. As a result plants grown in soil with or without a compact subsoil had a similar total root length but with altered root distribution. When the water and nitrogen supplied to the soil was reduced, the lower subsoil Lv in the compact subsoil did not restrict water or N acquisition. This was possibly due to a large increase in the specific uptake per unit length of root, by the fewer roots in the compact subsoil. Compared to the subsoil treatments, only small changes in topsoil physical properties occurred when tillage was ceased. From the field trials the proportion and time of root growth into compact soil appeared important in determining the plant response. In a series of split-root experiments (horizontal and vertical arrangements of compact and loose soil) compensatory root growth in the loose soil only occurred when the root system was exposed to horizontally compact soil When compensatory root growth did not occur shoot growth was reduced. This resulted in there being a close relationship between total root length and leaf area. Further test results support a direct effect of mechanical impedance on shoot growth with a rapid (within 10 minutes) and large (50%) reduction in leaf elongation occurring when roots were mechanically impeded. In the field only plants whose roots were totally exposed to compact soil had reduced shoot growth with very compact subsoil having no effect. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Broccoli is a vegetable crop of increasing importance in Australia, particularly in south-east Queensland and farmers need to maintain a regular supply of good quality broccoli to meet the expanding market. However, harvest maturity date, head yield and quality are all affected by climatic variations during the production cycle, particularly low temperature episodes. There are also interactions between genotype and climatic variability. A predictive model of ontogeny, incorporating climatic data including frost risk, would enable farmers to predict harvest maturity date and select appropriate cultivar - sowing date combinations. The first stage of this research was to define floral initiation, which is fundamental to predicting ontogeny. Scanning electron micrographs of the apical meristem were made for the transition from the vegetative to advanced reproductive stage. During the early vegetative stage (stage 1), the apical meristem was a small, pointed shoot tip surrounded by leaf primordia. The transitional stage (stage 2) was marked by a widening and flattening to form a dome-shaped apical meristem. In the floral initiation stage (stage 3), the first-order floral primordia were observed in the axils of the developing bracts. Under field conditions, the shoot apex has an average diameter of 500 micro m at floral initiation and floral primordia can be observed under a light microscope. Sub-zero temperatures can result in freezing injury and thereby reduce head yield and quality. In order to predict the effects of frosts, it is desirable to know the stages of development at which plants are most susceptible. Therefore, the effects of sub-zero temperatures on leaf and shoot mortality, head yield and quality were determined after exposure of plants to a range of temperatures for short periods, at different stages of development (vegetative, floral initiation and buttoning). Plants in pots and in the field were subjected to sub-zero temperature regimes from -1 C to -19 C. Extracellular ice formation was achieved by reducing temperatures slowly, at a rate of -2 C per hour. The floral initiation stage was most sensitive to freezing injury, as yields were significantly reduced at -1 C and -3 C, and shoot apices were killed at -5 C. There was no significant yield reduction when the inflorescence buttoning stage was subjected to -1 C and -3 C. Although shoot apices at buttoning survived the -5 C treatment, very poor quality heads of uneven bud size were produced as a result of arrested development. The lethal temperature for pot-grown broccoli was between -3 C and -5 C, whereas the lethal temperature for field-grown broccoli was between -7 C and -9 C. The difference was presumably due to variation in cold acclimation. Freezing injury can reduce broccoli head yield and quality, and retard plant growth. Crop development models based only on simple thermal time without restrictions will not predict yield or maturity if broccoli crops are frost-damaged. Field studies were conducted to develop procedures for predicting ontogeny, yield and quality. Three cultivars, (Fiesta, Greenbelt and Marathon) were sown on eight dates from 11 March to 22 May 1997, and grown under natural and extended (16 h) photoperiods in a sub-tropical environment at Gatton College, south-east Queensland, under non-limiting conditions of water and nutrient supply. Daily climatic data, and dates of emergence, floral initiation, harvest maturity, together with yield and quality were obtained. Yield and quality responses to temperature and photoperiod were quantified. As growing season mean minimum temperatures decreased, fresh weight of tops decreased while fresh weight harvest index increased linearly. There was no definite relationship between fresh weight of tops or fresh weight harvest index and growing season minimum temperatures greater than 10 C. Genotype, rather than the environment, mainly determined head quality attributes. Fiesta had the best head quality, with higher head shape and branching angle ratings than Greenbelt or Marathon. Bud colour and cluster separation of Marathon were only acceptable for export when growing season mean minimum temperatures were less than 8 C. Photoperiod did not influence yield or quality in any of the three cultivars. A better understanding of genotype and environmental interactions will help farmers optimise yield and quality, by matching cultivars with time of sowing. Crop developmental responses to temperature and photoperiod were quantified from emergence to harvest maturity (Model 1), from emergence to floral initiation (Model 2), from floral initiation to harvest maturity (Model 3), and in a combination of Models 2 and 3 (Model 4). These thermal time models were based on optimised base and optimum temperatures of 0 and 20 C, respectively. These optimised temperatures were determined using an iterative optimisation routine (simplex). Cardinal temperatures were consistent across cultivars but thermal time of phenological intervals were cultivar specific. Sensitivity to photoperiod and solar radiation was low in the three cultivars used. Thermal time models tested on independent data for five cultivars (Fiesta, Greenbelt, Marathon, CMS Liberty and Triathlon) grown as commercial crops on the Darling Downs over two years, adequately predicted floral initiation and harvest maturity. Model 4 provided the best prediction for the chronological duration from emergence to harvest maturity. Model 1 was useful when floral initiation data were not available, and it predicted harvest maturity almost as well as Model 4 since the same base and optimum temperatures of 0 C and 20 C, respectively, were used for both phenological intervals. Model 1 was also generated using data from 1979-80 sowings of three cultivars (Premium Crop, Selection 160 and Selection 165A). When Model 1 was tested with independent data from 1983-84, it predicted harvest maturity well. Where floral initiation data were available, predictions of harvest maturity were most precise using Model 3, since the variation, which occurred from emergence to floral initiation, was removed. Prediction of floral initiation using Model 2 can be useful for timing cultural practices, and for avoiding frost and high temperature periods. This research has produced models to assist broccoli farmers in crop scheduling and cultivar selection in south-east Queensland. Using the models as a guide, farmers can optimise yield and quality, by matching cultivars with sowing date. By accurately predicting floral initiation, the risk of frost damage during floral initiation can be reduced by adjusting sowing dates or crop management options. The simple and robust thermal time models will improve production and marketing arrangements, which have to be made in advance. The thermal time models in this study, incorporating frost risk using conditional statements, provide a foundation for a decision support system to manage the sequence of sowings on commercial broccoli farms.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--University of Alberta, 2010. / A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Centre for Neuroscience. Title from pdf file main screen (viewed on January 27, 2010). Includes bibliographical references.

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